1211

12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2

Ophiorrhiza L.

Sp. pl. 1: 150 (1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 74 (1754).

RUBIACEAE

x = 11; Ophiorrhiza mungos: 2n = 22

Major species Ophiorrhiza mungos L.

Snake root (En).

Ophiorrhiza comprises about 150 species and occurs from eastern India and Sri Lanka throughout continental Asia to southern China, Japan, Malesia, Micronesia, the Fiji Islands and the Society Islands. The genus reaches its greatest diversity in New Guinea and south-eastern Asia. One species occurs in northern Australia.

The leaves and young stems of medicinally used Ophiorrhiza are normally crushed and applied as a poultice to soften skin and ripen boils.
The roots of Ophiorrhiza mungos are intensely bitter and are official in the French and Spanish Pharmacopoeias. They are applied as a treatment of cancer and are also widely known in Malesia for treating snakebites, although this is incorrect. This misconception seems to be based on its resemblance to Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. In India, a decoction of the leaves, roots and bark make an agreeable, bitter tonic and stomachic. Laxative and sedative properties are attributed to the bark of the root.
Ophiorrhiza singaporensis Ridley, from southern Peninsular Malaysia, like Ophiorrhiza communis used for poulticing boils or for leprosy. The leaves of Ophiorrhiza laxa A. Gray, endemic to Fiji, are chewed to stop blood in the urine. A decoction of the mashed leaves of Ophiorrhiza leptantha A. Gray, occurring in Fiji and one of the Horne Islands, is taken for stomach-ache.
In India, a paste made of the scrapings of the stem of Ophiorrhiza mungos is used in the production of scabbards and guitars.

Ophiorrhiza is mainly used on a local scale, although its occurrence in European Pharmacopoeias indicates that international trade exists.

The aerial parts of Ophiorrhiza mungos contain several alkaloids, e.g. the indole[2,3-a]-quinolizidine alkaloid (-)-ophiorrhizine (also in Ophiorrhiza major), as well as the chinolin alkaloids camptothecin and 10-methoxycamptothecin.
In limited trials, camptothecin showed a broad spectrum anti-tumour activity, but its toxicity and poor solubility caused several problems. The natural 10-hydroxy-camptothecin is more active than camptothecin, and is used in China against cancers of the neck and head. More promising are the analogues 9-amino-camptothecin and several semi-synthetic derivatives. These compounds are tested in clinical trials and showing good responses in a number of cancers, including colon, lung, ovarial and cervical cancers. The agents act by inhibition of the enzyme topo-isomerase I, which is involved in DNA replication and reassembly, by binding and stabilizing a covalent DNA-topo-isomerase complex. Camptothecin has also been shown to have potentially useful activity against pathogenic protozoa such as Leishmania donovani and Trypanosoma brucei, which cause Leishmaniasis and sleeping sickness, respectively. Again, this is due to topo-isomerase I inhibition. Camphothecin and 10-methoxycamphtothecin also possess antivirus activity against Herpes simplex virus.
The aerial parts of Ophiorrhiza communis yield strictosidinic acid and harman, as well as isomalindine-16-carboxylate. The alkaloid harman-2-oxide was isolated from Ophiorrhiza rosacea Ridley of Peninsular Malaysia. The alkaloids palicoside and 3,14-didehydro-19-methylnormalindine were isolated from Ophiorrhiza kunstleri King, occurring in southern Thailand. Ophiorrhiza blumeana Korth. from Java, yields the alkaloids bracteatine, ophiorrhizine-12-carboxylate, blumeanine, and ophiorrhizine. The Chinese Ophiorrhiza pumila Champ. ex Benth. contains deoxypumiloside, pumiloside and chaboside.

Camptothecin and derivatives can also be obtained from Camptotheca acuminata Decne. (Nyssaceae), Mappia foetida Miers (Icacinaceae), Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer (Icacinaceae) and Tabernaemontana heyneana Wallich (Apocynaceae).

Annual to perennial, procumbent or erect herbs, branched or not, sometimes woody at base, 30—150(-B300) cm tall. Leaves opposite, simple, elliptical-lanceolate, lanceolate to ovate, base slightly unequal; petiole present; stipules interpetiolar, variable in shape and size, entire or lobed, persistent or not. Inflorescence terminal, umbelliform to corymbiform, composed of several cymes; branches spiciform to cincinniform, short at anthesis, elongate or not afterwards. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, white or pink, small, subsessile; bracts absent, small or forming an involucrum; calyx tube very small, usually turbinate, lobes 5, tiny; corolla tube cylindrical or funnel-shaped, glabrous or puberulous, lobes 5, valvate in bud; stamens 5, usually included, inserted in the tube, corolla tube swollen at insertion, filaments minute, anthers linear, opening by longitudinal slits; disk large, 2-lobed, fleshy, glabrous, ovary inferior, 2-celled, ovules numerous, style filiform, stigmas 2, linear or oblong, included or exserted. Fruit a coriaceous, flattened capsule, subcordate, broader than long, dehiscing at the apex by 2 broad valves, with numerous seeds. Seed minute, 0.5 mm long, angular, glabrous.

The flowers of Ophiorrhiza species with an elongate corolla tube are probably pollinated by Lepidoptera, while the ones with a short tube can be pollinated by other insects as well. In Indo-China, Ophiorrhiza mungos fruits in January.

Ophiorrhiza is a large, taxonomically complex and most likely polyphyletic genus, of which a worldwide revision is badly lacking. Several authors place Ophiorrhiza in subfamily Rubioideae, because raphid crystals have been found in several species, and also because of its albuminous seeds and valvate aestivation.

Most Ophiorrhiza prefer humid upland forest, but some have a wider altitude range, and even occur on the beach.

Ophiorrhiza is propagated by seed.

Cell cultures of the Chinese Ophiorrhiza pumila yielded a series of anthraquinones and a gluco-camptothecin, 9-'BETA'-D-glucosyloxy-camptothecin.

Ophiorrhiza plants are normally pulled up completely for use.

Ophiorrhiza is usually used fresh.

Many Ophiorrhiza have a restricted area of distribution, but are locally often rather common. As they are not extensively used the risk of genetic erosion seems to be limited.
No breeding programmes of Ophiorrhiza are known to exist in the Malesian region.

Camptothecin and its derivatives show good prospects in the development of new anti-cancer drugs. Several semi-synthetic derivatives have already entered clinical trials. Therefore, although camptothecin can be obtained from several natural sources, there might be future potential for Ophiorrhiza as a supplier of synthetic starting materials.

Darwin, S.P., 1976. The Pacific species of Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae). Lyonia 1(2): 47B-102.
Dewick, P.M., 1997. Medicinal natural products. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, United Kingdom. p. 339.
Quisumbing, E., 1978. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing Co., Quezon City, the Philippines. p. 922.
Ridley, H.N., 1923. The flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. 2. Gamopetalae. Government of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. L. Reeve & Co, London, United Kingdom. pp. 35—42.
Tafur, S., Nelson, J.D., DeLong, D.C. & Svoboda, G.H., 1976. Antiviral components of Ophiorrhiza mungos. Isolation of camptothecin and 10-methoxycamptothecin. Lloydia 39(4): 261—262.
Takayama, H., Kitajima, M. & Aimi, N., 1999. Chemistry of camptothecin and its related alkaloids. Journal of Synthetic Organic Chemistry (Japan) 57(3): 181—193.

G.H. Schmelzer & N. Bunyapraphatsara

Ophiorrhiza communis
Ophiorrhiza major
Ophiorrhiza mungos

Schmelzer, G.H. & Bunyapraphatsara, N., 2001. Ophiorrhiza L.. In: van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea

The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Ophiorrhiza communis
Ophiorrhiza major
Ophiorrhiza mungos