1216

12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2

Illicium anisatum L.

Syst. nat. ed. 10: 1050 (1759).

ILLICIACEAE

2n = 28

Illicium religiosum Siebold & Zucc. (1835).

Japanese star anise, star anise (En). Anis du Japon (Fr). Indonesia: adas jepang, adas cina. Philippines: sanke, sanki (Tagalog).

Illicium anisatum occurs wild and is also cultivated in Japan, southern China and Taiwan; some state that it was introduced into Japan long ago by Buddhist priests. It does not occur naturally in South-East Asia.

The fruits of Illicium anisatum are imported in considerable quantity, and are found in traditional Chinese pharmacies. Illicium anisatum fruits and leaves are poisonous and the plant has been known to be so since earliest times. It is not prescribed for internal uses, nor applied to the eyes. The fruit, seed oil or leaves are used as a local application in treating toothache, certain forms of dermatitis, and parasites. The plant is used as an insecticide, and as a fish and rat poison. In China a 10—25% aqueous extract is used as an insecticide. The main symptoms of poisoning in man are vomiting, abdominal pains, coma and pulmonary paralysis. Some mention is made of minute quantities included in some Javanese 'jamu'.
In traditional medicine a powder or decoction of the fruits of Illicium verum Hook.f. is used to treat abdominal colic, lumbago arising from a deficiency in the kidneys, vomiting and epigastric pain due to cold in the stomach and diarrhoea. It also has an antidiarrhoeal effect due to its prevention of intestinal fermentation. The fruit is an oestrogenic agent used to increase milk secretion, promote menstruation and facilitate childbirth. The essential oil is officially listed in several Pharmacopoeias. It has stimulant, antiseptic, stomachic, carminative and mildly expectorant properties. It is part of an antitussive formulation and is employed against rheumatism, and also for body lice and bed bugs, but may cause dermatitis in susceptible people. The oil is used as starting material for the production of synthetic oestrogens (e.g. diethylstilbestrol, diethylstilbestrol dipropionate) and perfumes. The leaves of Illicium philippinense Merr. from the Philippines and Taiwan, considered by some to be conspecific with Illicium anisatum, are highly poisonous. In the temperate zone Illicium anisatum is planted widely as an ornamental. In Japan, flowering twigs are a popular cut flower in cemeteries and Buddhist temples.

Wholesale prices for fruits or powder of Illicium anisatum are about US $30/kg.

The fruits and seeds of both Illicium anisatum and Illicium verum contain an essential oil, although its quantity is far more abundant in the latter species; 0.25—1% and 5—9%, respectively. The main components of the oil (60—90 %) include the phenylpropanoids anethole (up to 90%), safrole, methyleugenol and small amounts of terpenes. Myristicin is present in small quantities in the oil of Illicium anisatum, but absent in that of Illicium verum. Anise oil, the essential oil obtained from the fruits of Pimpinella anisum L. is practically identical with that from Illicium verum. Since for all pharmaceutical purposes these 2 oils are indistinguishable, many current Pharmacopoeias no longer differentiate between these essential oils, and anise oil may be derived from both species.
The fruits and seeds of Illicium anisatum furthermore contain a series of rearranged, dilactonic, picrotoxin-like sesquiterpenoid lactones (e.g. anisatin, neoanisatin, pseudoanisatin, veranisatin and related compounds). Anisatin and neoanisatin impart convulsive properties to the drug. Similar convulsants are also found in small amounts in Illicium verum, but these amounts are without risk for their medicinal and culinary uses. In mice, at a dose of 3 mg/kg (orally), several veranisatins showed convulsion and lethal toxicity, and at lower doses they caused hypothermia. Veranisatin A and anisatin were tested for other pharmacological activities such as locomotor activity and analgesic effects. Both compounds decreased locomotion enhanced by methamphetamine at oral doses of 0.1 mg/kg and 0.03 mg/kg, respectively, and demonstrated analgesia on acetic acid-induced writhing and tail pressure pain at almost similar doses.
Shikimic acid was first isolated from the fruits of Illicium anisatum, where it is present in large amounts, accompanied by protocatechuic acid. The compound is actually named after the Japanese name of the plant, which is 'shikimi'. The effect of shikimic acid on focal cerebral ischaemic injury after middle cerebral artery thrombosis (MCAT) was studied in rats. Thrombosis was induced by ferric chloride in the rat middle cerebral artery. The effect of shikimic acid on neurological deficit (ND), infarct size (IS), brain oedema and cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the ischaemic region were observed. Shikimic acid (25 and 50 mg/kg, intraperitoneally administered for 3 days before MCAT) attenuated ND, and reduced IS by 51 and 42%, respectively, decreased brain water content from 80.7% to 79.8 and 79.9%, respectively, and increased CBF after ischaemia from 50.2% of the preischaemic level to 75.5 and 73.3%, respectively. Less thrombosis was observed in MCA of rats pretreated with shikimic acid at 25 mg/kg. The extent of brain ischaemia was less than that of the control.
Extracts of Illicium anisatum were furthermore studied for their insecticidal activity against Culex quinquefasciatus larvae and for their mode of action on ion channels. The crude methanol extract and its ethyl acetate-soluble fractions were active as insecticide with EC₅₀ values of 63.0 µg/ml and 43.7 µg/ml, respectively. The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction was perfused through the bathing solution and the current induced by a brief (10 ms) application of GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) by pressure ejection through pipette electrode was recorded by the whole-cell patch clamp technique. The extract suppressed GABA-induced currents irreversibly with an EC₅₀ value of 0.42 µg/ml. The time constant of current fitted to the single exponential function was shortened by the ethyl acetate-soluble fraction at concentrations ranging from 0.1 µg/ml to 10 µg/ml in a concentration-dependent manner. It was concluded that Illicium anisatum extracts decreased the affinity of GABA for its binding site on the GABA receptor, thereby suppressing GABA-induced currents.
In addition, crude extracts of Illicium verum showed potent antifungal activity against a range of plant pathogens.

An evergreen shrub or small tree up to 8 m tall; wood and leaves highly aromatic. Leaves alternate, simple, narrowly ovate to lanceolate, 4—12 cm x 1.5—5 cm, base cuneate, tapering, apex blunt, entire, coriaceous; petiole 0.7—2 cm long; stipules absent. Flowers axillary, sometimes solitary, usually crowded, bisexual, regular, 2.5—3 cm in diameter, perianth lobes 12—15(—30), arranged spirally, slender, acute, 3 mm wide, pale yellow to white; pedicel 0.5—1.5 cm long; stamens (16—)18—20(—25), arranged spirally; carpels 7—9(—10), arranged in a single row. Fruit a capsule-like follicetum, 2.5—3 cm in diameter, consisting of an aggregate of 7—8 follicles, arranged around a central axis in the shape of a star; each follicle boat-shaped, 1-seeded. Seed obovate-ellipsoid, 6—7 mm long, smooth, glossy, yellowish, containing copious endosperm.

Vegetative growth of Illicium anisatum is markedly discontinuous, with periods of dormancy of vegetative buds alternating with active growth. The resumption of growth involves the rapid elongation of buds to produce stems several centimetres long, which bear small caducous leaves; apical pseudowhorls of leaves are then produced, consisting of alternately arranged normal leaves that are tightly clustered together.

Illicium comprises about 40 species, 5 in North America and 35 in eastern Asia (7 in Malesia). The common names 'star anise' and 'star anise oil' are generally used for Illicium verum products. Unfortunately, several other Illicium species produce similar fruits which are often also named 'star anise', causing confusion and sometimes danger. Most dangerous is the existing confusion with Illicium anisatum. Fruits of A. anisatum are smaller than those of Illicium verum and do not form a regular star due to the abortion of some carpels, its follicles are not swollen in the middle and are more pointed at the apex; its odour is balsamic and not anise-like, and the taste is bitter. Botanical drawings do not corroborate the morphological differences in the fruits. To avoid confusion it is proposed to use the scientific names or to use 'Chinese star anise' for Illicium verum and 'Japanese star anise' for Illicium anisatum.

In its natural habitat Illicium anisatum is found in moist evergreen broad-leaved forest at 1000—2500 m altitude.

Illicium can be propagated from simple layerings or from cuttings. Layerings should be conducted at the beginning of the growing season. Cuttings are preferably green wood cuttings 7—8 cm long taken at the end of the growing season and kept under mist spray or in a closed case to prevent excessive evaporation. Information on propagation by seed is a little contradictory. Illicium anisatum can be sown without pretreatment at the beginning of the growing season. Seedlings are transplanted to individual pots when they are large enough to handle. In temperate regions both cuttings and seedlings are kept in the greenhouse for the first winter. They are planted out in early summer of the following year, and are given some protection for several winters to follow.

Illicium anisatum can be grown in full sun or partial shade, and in lime-free, humus-rich soils that are well-drained but moisture retentive.

In some parts of southern Japan, Illicium anisatum plantations are damaged by the camphor tree weevil (Dyscerus hylobioides). The level of infestation increased with age of the plantations and in the vicinity of natural forest. Regular weeding may reduce the level of infestation, apart from the use of insecticides.

Assuming a similarity in harvesting in Illicium, Illicium anisatum fruits may be harvested before fully ripe, when the essential oil content is highest. Harvesting is carried out by hand picking, or by using a pole with a little hook connected to the end to detach the fruits.

Illicium anisatum 'Pink Star' is a seedling variant with more anthocyanin pigment in the plant than normal, resulting in crimson new shoot growth and flowers which are distinctly pink in the bud stage and gradually fading to white as flowers open and age. Forms with variegated leaves are also known. There are no known breeding programmes of Illicium anisatum.

The potential for cultivation Japanese star anise in South-East Asia needs further investigation. Some components show interesting pharmacological activities, but due to their nature of activities, they will only be of interest in research.

Ikeda, T., Nagata, K., Honda, H., Shono, T. & Narahashi, T., 1998. Insecticidal activity of Sikimi extract and its modulation of the GABA receptor channel. Pesticide Science 52(4): 337—342.
Ma, Y., Xu, Q.P., Sun, J.N., Bai, L.M., Guo, Y.J., & Niu, J.Z., 1999. Antagonistic effects of shikimic acid against focal cerebral ischemia injury in rats subjected to middle cerebral artery thrombosis. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 20(8): 701—704.
Nakamura, T., Okuyama, E. & Yamazaki, M., 1996. Neurotropic components from star anise (Illicium verum Hook. fil.). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo) 44(10): 1908—1914.
Saunders, R.M.K., 1997. Illiciaceae. In: Kalkman, C., Kirkup, D.W., Nooteboom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Series 1. Vol. 13. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 169—184.
Small, E., 1996. Confusion of common names for toxic and edible 'star anise' (Illicium) species. Economic Botany 50(3): 337—339.
Vu Ngoc Lô, 1999. Illicium verum Hook.f. In: de Guzman, C.C. & Siemonsma, J.S. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 13. Spices. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 130—134.

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Undang A. Dasuki

Dasuki, U.A., 2001. Illicium anisatum L.. In: van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea