1223

12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2

Pavetta indica L.

Sp. pl. 1: 110 (1753).

RUBIACEAE

2n = 22

Ixora indica (L.) Kuntze (1891), Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Smith (1810).

White pavetta, bride's bush (En). Bois de pintade (Fr). Indonesia: soka (Sundanese). Malaysia: jarum-jarum, nyarum-nyarum, gading-gading. Philippines: gusokan (Cebu Bisaya), pangapatolen (Iloko), kotbu (Igorot). Laos: kho som kang, kho som kao. Thailand: khem paa (central, northern). Vietnam: thanh t[as]o r[uwf]ng, d[oj]t s[af]nh, c[awr]ng g[af].

Pavetta indica is widely distributed from the Andaman Islands, India and the north-western Himalayas to southern China and southwards throughout Malesia to northern Australia.

In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves of Pavetta indica are used for poulticing boils, and the roots for poulticing stubborn itch. A cooled decoction of the leaves is applied to ulcers of the nose. The decoction is drunk during the first days after childbirth as a protective medicine, but also for delayed childbirth and for fever. In the Philippines and India, the root, root bark or stem bark is used for intestinal obstructions. In the Philippines, a poultice of the stem bark is also applied for soothing haemorrhoids. The crushed root bark, with rice water and ginger, is taken as a diuretic and for dropsy. In Indo-China, an infusion of the thinly cut wood is taken for rheumatism. In India, especially the root is considered medicinal and used as a diuretic, purgative, aperient and tonic, and is prescribed in intestinal obstructions, jaundice, headache, urinary diseases and dropsy.
The fruit has a sweet taste when ripe, and is also used as a condiment when kept in vinegar. In some parts of India, the flowers are eaten. In Thailand, an infusion of the fragrant flowers is used as a cosmetic after bathing.
In India, the leaves provide a good green mulch. Pavetta indica and several other Pavetta are cultivated as ornamentals.

Pavetta indica is used on a local scale only.

In general, little information is available on the phytochemistry and pharmacology of Pavetta indica. The root bark contains a bitter aromatic glycoside related to salicin. A screening of the stem gave positive reactions for an essential oil (0.6%), alkaloids and tannins (5%). The fresh leaves from plants originating from southern India contain triterpenes and steroids such as 'BETA'Bsitosterol, 'ALFA'-amyrin and 3-epi-ursolic acids, together with common phenolics such as quercetin, caffeic- and chlorogenic acid. An aqueous extract of the leaves, at a daily dose of 0.2 g for 7 days, exhibited a hepatotoxic effect in rays by inhibiting alkaline phosphatase, glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase.
More information is available on Pavetta owariensis Beauv., a medicinally used African species. Pavetannins C-1 to C-6 (tetrameric proanthocyanidins containing one or two double interflavonoid (A-type) linkages), pavetannins B7 and B8 (trimeric proanthocyanidins), as well as the known tetramers cinnamtannin B2 and its positional isomer, pavetannin C1 and the pentamer pavetannin D1, have been isolated from the stem bark. Three major and two minor ferulic acid esters were identified in a hexane extract as well. Several phytochemical analyses and tests on biological activity have been performed; some of them focus on the presence of proanthocyanidins. The schistosomicidal properties of ethanol and acetone extracts of Pavetta owariensis were assessed in mice infected with Schistosoma mansoni. All extracts containing proanthocyanins were shown to cause a reduction in size of periovular granuloma formation in the liver. This effect was most pronounced with ethanol extracts of both 'white bark' and 'red bark' varieties of the plant. Acetone extracts of the 'red bark' variety, containing the highest concentration of proanthocyanins, caused a marked reduction in the number of eggs in the liver and intestine. Pavetta owariensis is used as an anthelmintic in Guinean traditional medicine and 11 proanthocyanidins, isolated from the stem bark, were investigated for molluscicidal activity against Biomphalaria glabrata, but at the tested concentrations (3—100 ppm), none of the compounds were lethal to the snails.
No information is available on the presence of proanthocyanidins in Pavetta indica. However, since proanthocyanidins will give positive reactions in tests on tannins, and the content of tannins in Pavetta indica is substantial (5%), their presence should not be excluded beforehand.
In southern Africa, Pavetta harborii S. Moore is one of the species held responsible for congestive cardiomyopathy and death in sheep and goats, called 'Gousiekte'. An aqueous extract from its stem was found to be very active in vitro against mycelial growth of Alternaria zinnae, Macrophomina phaseolina and Sclerotium rolfsii. An aqueous extract from the leaves of Pavetta oblongifolia Bremek. from West Africa, was tested against 9 strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, including penicillin and tetracycline resistant strains, and showed strong antibacterial activity against all the tested strains.

A shrub or small tree, 3—5 m tall, with opposite branches; young twigs glabrous, puberulent or pubescent. Leaves opposite, simple, very variable, ovate to oblong, 6—13 cm x 2—5 cm, base acute or cuneate, apex obtuse to acute, glabrous or hairy underneath; petiole 1—2 cm long; stipules interpetiolate, connate at base, distinctly cuspidate. Inflorescence a terminal, compact, erect corymb or corymbose panicle, up to 6 cm long; peduncle short; bracts large, membranaceous, cupuliform, persistent. Flowers bisexual, 4-merous, white, fragrant, protandrous, pedicel short; calyx campanulate, teeth tiny; corolla tube cylindrical, 8—12 mm long, rather thick, lobes obtuse, up to 4 mm long, contorted in bud; stamens inserted at corolla throat, with short filaments, anthers dorsifixed, sagittate and conspicuously twisted; disk annular; ovary inferior, 2-locular, 1 ovule per cell, style filiform, long-exserted, stigma 2-lobed, lobes very short. Fruit a globose drupe, 5B-6 mm in diameter, with 1—2 pyrenes, ripening black; pyrene 1-seeded, thin-walled, plano-convex, with a wide, circular excavation. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy, green.

Flowering is seasonal in Pavetta. The flowers are mainly pollinated by moths and butterflies. The seeds are probably dispersed by fruit-eating birds.

Pavetta is widely distributed in the Old World tropics and comprises 200—400 species. It does not occur though in Madagascar, New Zealand and Oceania. Africa has the largest number of species, but Sri Lanka and the Philippines are also very rich. Most Pavetta species have a rather local distribution. Ixora closely resembles Pavetta, but can be distinguished by its short-exserted style with recurved stigmas, reflexed anthers, reddish drying flowers, and shortly united stipules. Pavetta indica is a rather controversial species, as some authors claim that it has a wide distribution area, and many varieties are then distinguished, mainly based on the hairiness of different plant parts. Other authors state that the real Pavetta indica is confined to India and Sri Lanka, and specimens resembling Pavetta indica in other regions bear a multitude of different names. This is the case in Java, where Pavetta axillaris Bremek., Pavetta montana Reinw. ex Blume, Pavetta reinwardtii Bremek., Pavetta subvelutina Miq. and Pavetta sylvatica Blume can also be considered to be Pavetta indica. In Australia, similar problems exist.
In several Pavetta species, also in Pavetta indica, leaves with nitrogen-fixating bacterial nodes are observed, living in symbiosis with the plant; this characteristic is lacking in Ixora. The bacteria also pass into the seeds, so that seedlings are already infected.

Pavetta indica is common in primary and secondary forests, where it often forms a single stem, but also occurs in open localities, where branched types are more common, from sea-level up to 1500 m altitude.

Pavetta is propagated by seed, and vegetatively by nodal softwood cuttings or semi-ripe cuttings. Seeds of Pavetta indica are sown in a fibrous, loam-based medium, with added sharp sand and charcoal. Fertilizer can be added, but the presence of nitrogen-fixating bacteria enables Pavetta indica to thrive in a nitrogen-deficient soil as well.

The leaves, stems and roots of Pavetta indica are harvested when needed. Commercially available roots in India are crooked in shape, varying from 6B-25 mm in diameter.

Plant parts of Pavetta indica are normally used fresh.

Pavetta indica (sensu lato) is widespread and common throughout South-East Asia, and therefore not endangered. There are no known breeding programmes of Pavetta indica.

Phytochemical and phytopharmacological information on Pavetta indica is rare. Related African species, however, contain compounds which show interesting activities. More research is therefore needed to investigate the potential of Pavetta indica.

Amos, S., Okwuasaba, F.K., Gamaniel, K., Akah, P. & Wambebe, C., 1998. Inhibitory effects of the aqueous extract of Pavetta crassipes leaves on gastrointestinal and uterine smooth muscle preparations isolated from rabbits, guinea pigs and rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(3): 209—213.
Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr, R.C., 1965. Flora of Java. Vol. 3. Noordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands. pp. 323—324.
Bremekamp, C.E.B., 1934. A monograph of the genus Pavetta L. Feddes Repertorium 37: 1—208.
Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. 2. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp. 1707—1708.
Ganguly, S.N., 1994. Constituents of Pavetta indica leaves. Fitoterapia 65(5): 477.
Silva, O., Ferreira, E., Pato, M.V. & Gomes, E., 1997. Guinea-Bissau's plants: in vitro susceptibility studies on Neisseria gonorrhoeae. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 35(5): 323—328.

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[80] Baldé, A.M., van Marck, E.A., Kestens, L., Gigase, P.L. & Vlietinck, A.J., 1989. Schistosomicidal effects of Pavetta owariensis and Harrisonia abyssinica in mice infected with Schistosoma mansoni. Planta Medica 55(1): 41—43.
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G.H. Schmelzer

Schmelzer, G.H., 2001. Pavetta indica L.. In: van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea