4237

5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers

Fagraea Thunb.

Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Nya Handl. 3: 132, t. 4 (1782).

LOGANIACEAE

x = 6; Fagraea ceilanica: 2n = 66, Fagraea fragrans: 2n = 12

Trade groups Tembesu: medium-weight to heavy hardwood, e.g. Fagraea crenulata Maingay ex C.B. Clarke, Fagraea elliptica Roxb., Fagraea fragrans Roxb.

Tembesu: Burma yellowheart (En). Brunei: pedang. Indonesia: tamosu (Sumatra), kolaki, nosu (Sulawesi). Malaysia: tembusu (Peninsular), temasuk (Sabah), pedang (Sarawak). Philippines: urung (general), dolo, teca. Burma (Myanmar): anan, ananma. Cambodia: tatrao. Laos: man pa. Thailand: tam sao (peninsular), kankrao (central), man pla (northern). Vietnam: trai.

Fagraea consists of about 35 species which occur in Sri Lanka and India through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, southern China and Taiwan towards the Malesian area, northern Australia and the Pacific. The centre of diversity lies in the Malesian area with 31 species which are distributed as follows: Peninsular Malaysia 15 species, Sumatra 10, Borneo 14, the Philippines 7, Java 7, the Lesser Sunda Islands 2, Sulawesi 7, the Moluccas 5 and New Guinea 13. Several species are planted within their natural area of distribution and Fagraea fragrans also in trial plantations in South America.

Tembesu is a timber used in applications where strength and durability are required (heavy constructions) and can be used in exposed conditions and in contact with the ground. It is used for house posts, bridges, boats, railway sleepers, piles, poles, fence posts, door and window sills, heavy-duty flooring, barrels, chopping blocks and coffins, and it is considered a first-class turnery timber. It is also used for furniture, cabinet making and carving, although it is not a particularly ornamental wood. Moreover, it makes high-quality firewood and charcoal.
Some species are planted as ornamental trees along roads and avenues, because of their handsome, slender appearance and their fragrant or large flowers. Fagraea racemosa is planted as a live fence. Planting for shade has also been observed.
Decoctions of roots, bark, twigs, leaves and flowers are used for medicinal purposes, amongst others to cure malaria or dysentery. The wood tar of one species is used to blacken teeth. Fruits are sometimes pickled and eaten. The latex under the epidermis of the fruits is widely used as a glue and locally used as a fly trap. In Malaysia the leaves are fed to livestock.

Tembesu timber is mainly used locally, and the amounts exported are insignificant. In 1987, approximately 210 m³ of logs were exported from Sabah, with a value of US$ 13 000 (US$ 62/m³).

Fagraea yields a medium-weight to heavy hardwood. The heartwood is pale yellow or yellow, darkening upon exposure to deep golden-brown, orange-brown or pale brown, not clearly demarcated from the paler sapwood. The density is (440—)510—1060(—1130) kg/m³ at 15% moisture content, the timber of Fagraea crenulata being considerably lighter (440—660 kg/m³) than that of the other species. The grain is straight, occasionally slightly wavy to moderately interlocked, rarely deeply interlocked, texture fine to moderately fine and even. The timber has an unpleasant smell when freshly cut, disappearing on drying, and has no distinct taste. A defect in Fagraea fragrans timber is the frequent occurrence of knots due to the persistence of branches.
In tests of samples from Indonesia and Malaysia the following mechanical properties at 15% moisture content were determined: the modulus of rupture 73.5—107 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 12 360—14 100 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 52—62.5 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 8—9 N/mm², shear 6—14 N/mm², cleavage 37—49.5 N/mm radial and 40—54 N/mm tangential, Janka side hardness 5445—6970 N and Janka end hardness c. 5450 N.
The rates of shrinkage are moderate: from green to 15% moisture content 1.1% radial and 1.6% tangential and from green to oven dry 3.4% radial and 6.6% tangential. Tembesu dries extremely slowly, usually without much degrade, and must be stacked properly. In Indonesia it takes 3 months to season 20 mm thick boards of Fagraea fragrans from 40% to 14% moisture content, whereas 13 mm thick boards have been reported to require 4—6 months in Malaysia to air dry. The recommended kiln schedule is a temperature of 35°C to 65°C with a corresponding relative humidity of 70% to 30%. Sapwood tends to stain in drying, and surface checking may occur, particularly in back-sawn material.
Tembesu is easy to saw and works well. Wood of Fagraea gracilipes, however, is very difficult to saw and blunts tools. Where the grain is interlocked, picking up may occur when planing radial surfaces; hence a 20° cutting angle is recommended. The wood finishes and polishes well, and the surface becomes glossy when sharp tools are used. The wood can be shaped, bored, mortised, turned and sanded with good results. Fagraea fragrans is considered to yield a first-class turnery timber. The nailing properties are good. Wood of Fagraea fragrans can be peeled into 1.5 mm thick veneer at a 90° peeling angle without pretreatment with good results. The gluing properties using urea-formaldehyde are good, although Fagraea gracilipes wood is rated as moderately difficult to glue.
Tembesu is rated as durable to very durable. The resistance to marine borers is variable, but the wood is resistant to dry-wood termites, other insects and fungi; it is liable to pinhole borer attack. Fagraea fragrans is generally not attacked by ambrosia beetles, but debarked logs may be infested. Apparently, the thick, tough bark protects the sapwood effectively. The heartwood is very difficult to impregnate satisfactorily, even by pressure processes; the sapwood is permeable (Fagraea fragrans) or variably permeable (Fagraea gracilipes) to preservatives.
Wood of Fagraea crenulata contains 70% holocellulose, 44% 'ALFA'-cellulose, 25% lignin, 13% pentosan and 0.7% ash, and wood of Fagraea fragrans contains 63% holocellulose, 46—47% 'ALFA'-cellulose, 24—29% lignin, 11—13% pentosan, 0.1—0.7% ash and 0.3% silica. The solubility of wood of Fagraea crenulata is 6.3% in alcohol-benzene, 10.1% in hot water and 15.9% in a 1% NaOH solution, and the solubility of Fagraea fragrans wood is 1.8—2.5% in alcohol-benzene, 2.4% in cold water, 4.9—6.9% in hot water and 13.1—13.5% in a 1% NaOH solution.

Small to fairly large, evergreen, glabrous trees, up to 40(—55) m tall (non-timber species may be lianas, and terrestrial or epiphytic shrubs); bole straight, cylindrical, branchless for up to 25 m, up to 150(—250) cm in diameter, sometimes with short buttresses or fluted; bark surface smooth or more often variously fissured, greyish to dark brown, inner bark pale yellow to brown. Leaves opposite, simple, entire or rarely crenulate, base decurrent or sometimes auricled, pinnately veined, petioled or sometimes sessile; stipules connate into an ocrea usually early splitting into 2 scales free to connate to the petiole. Flowers solitary or in a few- to many-flowered, usually terminal cyme, bisexual, actinomorphic, 5-merous; bracts and bracteoles present; sepals fleshy to leathery or even woody, united at base, lobes imbricate; petals united into a tube divided into a thinner-walled lower and thicker-walled upper part, creamy-white, lobes contorted, shorter than the tube; stamens inserted on the tube, filaments geniculate just above the base, anthers basifixed, deeply to shallowly bifid at base, dehiscing lengthwise; ovary superior, ellipsoid, 1—2-celled, with many ovules, style as long as the corolla tube or exserted. Fruit a berry or sometimes 4-valved, with sticky latex below the epidermis, many-seeded. Seeds irregularly angular, minutely warty, brown. Seedling with epigeal germination; all leaves decussate.

— Macroscopic characters:
Heartwood yellowish-brown to pale brown, sometimes pinkish-buff, not clearly demarcated from the pale yellow sapwood. Grain usually straight, sometimes slightly wavy or interlocked. Texture fine to moderately fine and even; zig-zag figure present on tangential surface; wood rather glossy. Growth rings indistinct or absent; vessels visible to the naked eye, many blocked by tyloses; rays visible with a hand lens; ripple marks absent.
— Microscopic characters:
Growth rings, when present, marked by tangential bands of denser fibrous tissue (Fagraea fragrans). Vessels diffuse, (2—)6—20/mm², occasionally solitary, often in radial multiples of 2—5(—8), sometimes in clusters, oval in outline, average tangential diameter 100—200 µm; perforations simple; intervessel pits alternate, vestured, round to oval, 8—10 µm; vessel-ray pits oval to linear elliptical, large (up to 25 µm); helical thickenings absent; tyloses generally very abundant. Fibres 900—1800 µm long, non-septate, thin-walled to very thick-walled, usually thick-walled, with simple or minutely bordered pits mainly confined to the radial walls. Parenchyma paratracheal and apotracheal; paratracheal parenchyma relatively sparse, forming narrow 1—2-seriate complete or incomplete sheaths to the vessels; apotracheal parenchyma abundant, in continuous, sometimes interrupted wavy bands of (1—)2—4(—6) cells wide, in 2—4-celled strands. Rays 15—17/mm, mostly or almost exclusively uniseriate, 0.7—1.4 mm high, heterocellular and composed of upright and square cells. Crystals, silica and intercellular canals absent. All elements non-storied.
Species studied: Fagraea ceilanica Thunb., Fagraea elliptica, Fagraea fragrans.

The mean annual diameter increment of a well managed trial plantation of Fagraea fragrans of 37 years old in West Java is 0.8 cm; it is 0.6 cm in a 20-year-old plantation in Sabah on a podzolic soil. In Peninsular Malaysia, mean annual diameter increments of 0.7 cm and 0.8 cm were achieved in trial plots of 38 years and 29 years old, respectively. Fagraea crenulata achieved a mean annual diameter increment of 1.0 cm on fertile soil in Peninsular Malaysia 25 years after planting.
The development of Fagraea fragrans trees is according to Aubréville's architectural model ("pagoda habit"" or "Terminalia branching"") the growth being determined by a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth, bearing whorled branch tiers, with branches plagiotropic by apposition, and branch modules indeterminate due to lateral flowering. Fagraea crenulata corresponds to the architectural tree model of Fagerlind, differing from Aubréville's model solely by the growth of the branch modules which is determinate by terminal flowering; it also exhibits the pagoda habit. Fagraea racemosa develops according to the architectural tree model of Roux, having a monopodial orthotropic trunk with continuous growth and plagiotropic branches, but never by apposition.
Tembesu flowers and fruits almost every year. Pollination is by insects, especially by bees of the genus Xylocopa, and by butterflies and nocturnal moths. Fruiting of Fagraea fragrans is 3—4(—7.5) months after anthesis. Seed dispersal is mainly by birds, not rarely by bats, and apparently also by ants.

Several species of Fagraea are myrmecophilous and possess extra-floral nectaries on leaves and calyces.

Tembesu occurs in open or occasionally dense primary and secondary forest, but also along forest edges or even as a pioneer in shrub vegetation or grassy locations. It occurs in perhumid to seasonal climates and from sea-level up to 1500(—2850) m altitude. It thrives in well-drained to swampy, periodically inundated habitats, occasionally even on permanently inundated localities, often along rivers or creeks. Several species are found along the shore or in or behind the mangrove belt. Most species grow on comparatively poor sandy soils, but tembesu is also found on poorly aerated clay soils and on limestone.

One kg contains about 5 million seeds of Fagraea fragrans. Seeds can be stored for 6 months, but they lose their viability very soon when kept inside the fruit. Fresh seed has a viability of 65—80% and germinates in 15 days to over 2 months. Fagraea fragrans seed with an initial viability of 80% still had 65% viability after being stored for 3 months in air-tight containers. Fruits should be macerated by hand to extract the seeds, which should then be washed and dried. Allowing the seed to ripen for 1 month after collection is reported, but immediate sowing also gives good results. The whole berry can also be sown, but then seedlings do not appear until after 6 weeks. The very fine seed should be mixed with fine sand and sown under light shade and needs protection from ants. Watering should be done by spraying. The seedlings can be transplanted to open nursery beds or containers after 2 months, when 5—7 cm high, and they can be planted out in the field when 30—45 cm high with adhering soil clump.
Stumps of Fagraea fragrans have been used, but these show a strong tendency to produce multiple shoots, leading to trees with up to five stems. Cuttings with several internodes taken from the branches of mature trees failed to root, but when taken from coppice shoots they rooted successfully. In-vitro propagation proved possible from rooted cuttings, but failed using explants from 10-year-old trees.
Plantations of Fagraea fragrans in Java were established with a spacing of 2.5—3 m 1 m. As it is a light demander, forming a very light canopy, it is necessary to mix these plantations with shade-tolerant species to control weed growth. Mixing with Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. subsp. bancana (Miq.) Bloembergen has been very successful. In a trial plantation of Fagraea crenulata in Peninsular Malaysia growth was very irregular, but individuals on drier sites displayed good growth, with annual diameter increment of 1 cm. In Indonesia, tembesu is planted in areas with a perhumid to slightly seasonal climate and up to 500 m altitude; here, growth on rather poor and eroded soils is still satisfactory.

Fagraea fragrans is considered a useful plantation species, as it is adaptable and hardy. It can be planted on poor or degraded but well-drained soils and even in lalang (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel) grasslands, where it suppresses this noxious grass. The corky bark of Fagraea fragrans gives it some resistance to fire; an 8-year-old plantation in lalang grassland suffered no damage from a passing fire.
Double stems should be removed. Thinning in cycles of 5 years up to the age of 30 years is appropriate for plantations; thereafter every 10 years. The lower branches are very persistent and pruning these promotes height growth. Fagraea fragrans and Fagraea racemosa reproduce easily by means of root suckers and coppice freely; locally, trees may be often pollarded for poles. A rotation of 15 years for Fagraea fragrans planted in lalang fields is expected to yield good poles; plantations have an estimated rotation of 100 years for sawn-timber production for house and bridge construction. Natural regeneration is best in more or less open locations.

Large trees are frequently hollow. A defect in Fagraea fragrans wood is the frequent occurrence of knots. In the early 20th Century, Fagraea fragrans and Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binnend. were both exploited as "ironwood"" in much the same way in South Sumatra and resources were then already qualified as being depleted. Logs of Fagraea racemosa should be handled carefully, as the bark possesses fine irritant hairs.

The mean annual volume increment of timber in Fagraea fragrans plantations in Java is 6.1 m³/ha. The percentage of good-quality sawn timber which can be obtained from Fagraea fragrans stems is relatively high, as the stem form of this species is very good. The mean timber volume of Fagraea fragrans in some natural forest areas in Indonesia is 1.3 m³/ha.

The timber should be treated with anti-stain chemicals immediately after sawing; the sapwood is especially liable to staining.

Early this century, Fagraea fragrans resources in South Sumatra were already dwindling. In general, however, Fagraea spp. are probably not endangered because their area of distribution is fairly large and because they often behave like pioneers. Decline of primary forest does not seriously affect them.

Fagraea fragrans is a useful tree in plantations and fire breaks due to its hardiness, fire resistance, light-demanding nature and tolerance of a wide variety of soils. It is able to suppress lalang grass, and plantations can be established in grassland without undue difficulty, whereas growth is satisfactory on poor and eroded soils.

Becking, J.H., 1948. Korte beschrijving van de houtsoorten aanbevolen voor bos-culturen op Java en Madoera [Brief description of tree species recommended for forest plantations in Java and Madura]. Unpublished manuscript. 115 pp.
Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching. pp. 244-246.
de Voogd, C.N.A., 1948. De bosculturen van Janlappa [The forest plantations of Janlappa]. Tectona 38: 63-76.
Essenburg, J.W.F., 1935. Tembesoe (Fagraea fragrans Roxb.). Tectona 28: 606-611.
Fundter, J.M., de Graaf, N.R. & Hildebrand, J.W., 1989. Fagraea fragrans Roxb. In: Westphal, E. & Jansen, P.C.M. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. A selection. Pudoc, Wageningen. pp. 126-128.
Hallé, F., Oldeman, R.A.A. & Tomlinson, P.B., 1978. Tropical trees and forests - an architectural analysis. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. pp. 90, 167-170, 190, 205.
Kochummen, K.M., 1983. Loganiaceae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor): Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd edition. Vol. 2. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 267-275.
Lee, S.K. & Rao, A.N., 1986. In-vitro regeneration of plantlets in Fagraea fragrans Roxb. - a tropical tree. Plant, Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 7(1): 43-51.
Leenhouts, P.W., 1962. Loganiaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 6. Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing, Groningen. pp. 299-336.
Martawijaya, A., Kartasujana, I., Mandang Y.I., Prawira, S.A. & Kadir, K., 1992. Indonesian wood atlas. Vol. 2. Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Bogor. pp. 136-140.

J.W. Hildebrand (general part), E. Boer (general part), A. Martawijaya (properties), J.M. Fundter (wood anatomy), M.S.M. Sosef (selection of species)

Fagraea berteriana
Fagraea bodenii
Fagraea crenulata
Fagraea elliptica
Fagraea fragrans
Fagraea gracilipes
Fagraea racemosa

Hildebrand, J.W., Boer, E., Martawijaya, A., Fundter, J.M. & Sosef, M.S.M., 1995. Fagraea Thunb.. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and Wong, W.C. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea

The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Fagraea berteriana
Fagraea bodenii
Fagraea crenulata
Fagraea elliptica
Fagraea fragrans
Fagraea gracilipes
Fagraea racemosa