4429

5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers

Mesua L.

Sp. pl. 1: 515 (1753); Gen. pl. (Ed. 5): 231 (1754).

GUTTIFERAE

x = unknown; Mesua ferrea: 2n = 32

Trade groups
— Penaga: heavy hardwood, e.g. Mesua ferrea L.
— Penaga tikus: medium-weight hardwood, e.g. Mesua beccariana (Baillon) Kosterm., Mesua nuda Kosterm. ex Whitmore, Mesua paniculata (Blanco) Kosterm.

— Penaga: Ceylon ironwood, Indian rose chestnut (En). Indonesia: nagasari (Sundanese, Java). Malaysia: lenggapus, matopus (Peninsular). Burma (Myanmar): ngaw, gangaw. Cambodia: bosneak. Laos: ka thang, may lek. Thailand: bunnak. Vietnam: v[aas]p.
— Penaga tikus. Brunei: taikakang. Malaysia: bintangor batu (Sabah), mergasing (Iban, Sarawak). Philippines: kaliuas.

Mesua consists of at least 42 species and is distributed from India and Sri Lanka, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand and the Malesian region to northern Australia (Queensland). Western Malesia is an important centre of diversity.

Being a heavy hardwood, penaga is extensively used for heavy construction (posts, beams, rafters, joists, columns) and heavy duty flooring and furniture. It is also used for joinery, cabinet work, staircases, pallets (permanent and heavy duty types), tool handles (heavy impact), agricultural implements, rice pestles, vehicles and boat building. Besides, penaga is often used for telegraphic and power transmission post and cross arms, and in India for railway sleepers. The timber is also suitable for gun-stocks, walking sticks and musical instruments and has also been used as firewood.
Penaga tikus is infrequently used. It is suitable for indoor usage and may be a suitable cabinet timber. Poles of good form may be useful for fences and round sleepers in temporary tracks.
The oil extracted from the seeds is used for lighting and for perfumery. Flowers are used in dyeing for fixing colours. Mesua ferrea is occasionally used in traditional medicine. In Malaysia and India, a mixture of pounded kernels and seed-oil is used for poulticing wounds. The seed-oil is used for treating itch and other skin eruptions, dandruff and against rheumatism. In Java, a decoction of the flowers is drunk by women after childbirth. The fragrant flowers are used to stuff pillows and cushions, and in cosmetic products.
Mesua ferrea is a common ornamental tree along roadsides and in parks. Its regular, conical, bushy crown with vivid green leaves and showy, fragrant flowers make it an attractive avenue and shade tree. In India, Mesua ferrea is a sacred tree.

Penaga is not produced in large quantities and is generally not traded separately but in mixed consignments of heavy hardwood.
Small amounts of penaga tikus are exported to Japan, but accurate statistics are not available.

Penaga is a heavy and very hard wood. The heartwood is reddish-brown with a purple tinge when fresh, becoming dark red-brown upon exposure. It is sharply demarcated from the sapwood which is pale brown or pale yellow with a greyish tinge and becomes grey or grey-brown upon exposure. The density is 940—1195 kg/m³ at 15% moisture content. The grain is straight to interlocked, texture rather fine and even. The wood lacks any characteristic odour or taste.
At 16.5% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 155—171 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 19 300—19 500 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 79.5—93 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 16—17 N/mm², shear 23 N/mm², cleavage 63 N/mm radial and 75 N/mm tangential, and Janka side hardness 14 860—15 530 N.
The rates of shrinkage of penaga are comparatively high: from green to 15% moisture content 4.3% radial and 5.5% tangential. The wood seasons slowly with a slight to moderate amount of end-checking and splitting and a slight risk of degrade, mainly cupping.
Penaga is slightly difficult to difficult to resaw and cross cut, but only slightly blunts the saws. Planing and boring is easy, with a smooth finish; the nailing properties are poor.
Penaga wood is rated as moderately durable to durable, but it is liable to termite attack. It is difficult to treat with preservatives.
Wood of Mesua ferrea contains 49.5% cellulose, 22% lignin, 16.5% pentosan and 0.3% ash. The solubility is 2.0% in alcohol-benzene, 3.0% in hot water and 10.7% in a 1% NaOH solution.
Penaga tikus is a medium-weight and hard wood. The heartwood is pale reddish-brown to yellowish-red or grey-brown with a reddish tinge and is indistinctly demarcated from the pale sapwood. The density is 705—805 kg/m³ at 15% moisture content. The grain is straight to shallowly interlocked, texture fine or moderately fine and even. The wood does not have any distinct odour or taste. The wood seasons well but is subject to checking and staining. Penaga tikus works well with a smooth finish. The wood is not durable in exposed situations or in contact with the ground.
The kernels contain 75—76% of a yellowish oil, constituted by the glycerides of common fatty acids: stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic acids.

Small to medium-sized or fairly large evergreen trees up to 36 m tall; bole cylindrical to poorly shaped, up to 95 cm in diameter, often fluted at base; bark surface smooth to adherent scaly, sometimes somewhat dippled, ochrous-brown revealing a bright orange layer below, inner bark firmly fibrous, yellow-brown to pink or red, slowly exuding a clear yellow sticky sap; crown monopodial, later becoming sympodial, branches horizontal to descending, the leaves horizontal or pendulous; flush bright red. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, usually elliptical to narrowly elliptical, glabrous or occasionally glaucous, often shiny; secondary veins numerous, looping, running parallel nearly to the margin, frequently with equally prominent reticulating tertiary veins; sometimes with more or less persistent stipule-like interpetiolar modified leaves (hypsophylls). Flowers terminal or axillary, bisexual, solitary or in an up to 9-flowered open panicle, pedicel with small paired bracts; sepals 4, decussate, suborbicular, persistent and variously enlarged and thickened in fruit; petals 4, white or pink; stamens numerous, free or connate only at the base; ovary superior, 1—2-celled, each cell with 1—2 axillary ovules, style slender with a peltate to 4-lobed stigma. Fruit a capsule, usually globose, often beaked, thinly woody, usually dehiscing with 2(—4) valves before falling, often exuding resinous droplets, seated on or enveloped by the generally persistent sepals, 1—4-seeded. Seedling with hypogeal germination; all leaves opposite.

— Macroscopic characters:
Penaga: heartwood reddish-brown with a purple tinge when fresh, becoming dark red-brown upon exposure, sharply demarcated from the pale brown or pale yellow sapwood with a greyish tinge and becoming grey or grey-brown upon exposure. Grain straight to interlocked. Texture rather fine and even; wood somewhat lustrous, without a characteristic odour or taste. Growth rings indistinct or absent; larger vessels visible to the naked eye, occasionally with yellowish-white deposits; parenchyma and rays not distinct without a lens; ripple marks absent.
— Microscopic characters:
Penaga: vessels diffuse in a radial to diagonal pattern, 4—6/mm², solitary or rarely in oblique radial multiples of 2(—3), round, tangential diameter 100—200(—250) µm; perforations simple; intervessel pits rare or absent; vessel-ray pits large and with strongly reduced borders to simple, rounded or gash-like; faint helical thickenings occasionally present; yellowish-white deposits sometimes present; tyloses abundant. Vasicentric tracheids abundant, sometimes with faint helical thickenings. Fibres 650—1600 µm long, non-septate, thick-walled, with minutely bordered to simple pits mainly confined to the radial walls. Parenchyma abundant, in 2—3 cells wide continuous or interrupted widely spaced apotracheal bands, in about 8-celled strands. Rays very fine and low, 9—12/mm, mostly 1-seriate, the larger ones 300—500 µm high, heterocellular, composed of procumbent central cells and one to two rows of square to upright marginal cells. Prismatic crystals present in chambered axial parenchyma cells; parenchyma with gum-like deposits. Gum ducts absent.
Species studied: Mesua ferrea.
Penaga wood resembles that of bintangor (Calophyllum) but is harder and heavier. According to literature from the Philippines, penaga tikus (Mesua paniculata and Mesua philippinensis studied) differs mainly in the sapwood being not distinctly differentiated from the heartwood and the parenchyma being conspicuous on tangential surfaces due to their dark red-brown colour. It has more numerous vessels (22—35/mm²), and rays 8—17/mm, 1—2(—4)-seriate and up to 1000 µm high.

During germination of Mesua ferrea, the testa of the seed splits and the radicle emerges from the blunter end. The fleshy cotyledons stay below the ground and within the testa. They remain attached to the seedling for several months. The seedlings will withstand considerable overhead shade, but they are susceptible to suppression by weeds.
Mesua ferrea grows very slowly. Even under favourable conditions the mean annual diameter increment of mature trees is only 0.3—0.4 cm. In India, an annual diameter increment of 0.5 cm has been recorded for trees in the diameter class 10—20 cm and of 0.8 cm during the first 24 years. In sample plots in Malaysia, 34-year-old trees reached a height of 17.3 m with a diameter at breast height of 24 cm, and 42-year-old trees reached a height of 19.2 m and a diameter of 27 cm. In a plantation established with container-raised seedlings, 8-year-old plants were 6 m tall and the canopy was closed.
Flowering starts when the trees are already fairly old. Mesua ferrea and Mesua nuda flower profusely in "mast years""; Mesua ferrea flowers in other years too, but not so profusely. It flowers during the dry season and flushes of new leaves are produced just after flowering at the start of the rainy season. The flowers open for one day, starting to open between 3 and 4 a.m. and closing around sunset. Numerous thrips have been observed visiting the flowers of Mesua ferrea.
In India, an endomycorrhizal association has been found in Mesua ferrea.

Mesua is closely related to Mammea and Calophyllum and belongs to the subfamily Calophylloideae and the tribe Calophylleae. It has been enlarged to include the genus Kayea Wallich, and is distinct from the other genera within the tribe by its bisexual flowers, its 1—4-seeded fruits with a thick exocarp and its leaves with distinct intercostal veins.
Several species possess tiny, needle-like, paired, axillary structures which strongly resemble stipules but are probably modified, reduced leaves of the undeveloped axillary shoot.

Mesua is a fairly common component of the understorey and is sometimes also frequent in the main canopy in lowland, hill and occasionally montane evergreen or semi-evergreen forest, up to 2300 m altitude. The species occur usually scattered (Mesua ferrea sometimes gregariously) and are found in a wide variety of habitats; some inhabit poor sites in ridge forest. Mesua usually occurs on well-drained land, but sometimes in areas prone to flooding during rainy periods, rarely on limestone. In Borneo, the species occur especially on leached acid soils, in kerangas forest, mixed dipterocarp forest, and along mountain ridges. Mesua ferrea requires a fairly rich, well-drained soil.

Penaga can be propagated by seed, which can be collected daily from underneath the tree or from the branches. One fruit contains 1—4 seeds. For Mesua ferrea, 1 kg contains 300—500 seeds. Seed is easy to handle in the nursery and germination is good and rapid. For Mesua ferrea 75—90% germination was recorded and seed germinated in 11—24 days. Seed loses its viability fairly rapidly, within 2—3 months. In India, the best storage result was obtained using perforated polyethylene bags stored at 5°C: germination was still 27% after 4 months of storage with an initial germination of 52%. A high degree of moisture and protection from the sun are essential for fair germination and early growth. Seed is planted 1—1.5 cm deep and spaced at 5 cm 5 cm in the nursery beds; later seedlings are thinned to 10 cm 10 cm. They grew best on raised beds in the nursery. Seedlings first develop a long taproot and therefore do not tolerate pricking out. In India, Mesua ferrea is planted in the field after 1 year when seedlings are about 30 cm tall or after 2 years when they are about 75 cm tall. In Indonesia, plants of 40—75 cm are recommended for planting out. In Malaysia, 4-year-old plants of Mesua ferrea were still too small to be planted in the field. Stumps do not thrive well, nor does bare-rooted planting stock. Vegetative propagation by means of cuttings did not prove successful. Container-raised seedlings are the best planting stock and should preferably be planted in fairly rich and well-drained sites under light shade. Mesua ferrea is also considered suitable for underplanting in e.g. teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations.

In India, the silviculture of Mesua ferrea is rather well developed. Mesua ferrea sets seed abundantly and natural regeneration is profuse, unless the seedlings are hindered by weeds or climbers. Mesua ferrea tolerates prolonged and intense shade, but it can stand full exposure as well. In a plantation in Peninsular Malaysia, growth of trees subject to full exposure is contorted, but they become straight later. However, when grown in the open, Mesua ferrea may be seriously affected by drought. Saplings coppice well, larger trees coppice fairly well, but the shoots are weak. An estimated rotation period of 150 years is required to arrive at 60 cm diameter for Mesua ferrea.

Pathogenic organisms and pests recorded for Mesua ferrea are the fungus Ganoderma lucidum, causing root and butt rot, and the insects Phenacaspis dilatata and Toxoptera aurantii, the larvae of which feed on the sap of the leaves, but do not cause serious injuries. The occurrence of these diseases or pests within the South-East Asian region has not been confirmed.

Penaga is a shade tree, and therefore selective cutting leaving enough shade for young trees is the only technique possible.

In Peninsular Malaysia, one tree of Mesua ferrea of commercial size is found per 16 ha.

Logs sink in water and should either be rafted to lighter logs or transported by road.

Mesua ferrea is known as an attractive lawn tree, but apart from a few individuals in arboreta, no specific ex-situ conservation takes place. Still, most Mesua spp. are fairly common elements of the Malesian rain forest and do not seem endangered when their habitats are preserved. Some of the rarer and endemic species (e.g. Mesua kochummeniana and Mesua nuda in Peninsular Malaysia) are more vulnerable to loss of genetic diversity.

Because of its very slow growth, penaga is not popular for plantations and will most likely continue to be harvested solely from the natural forest where regeneration occurs through wildlings. The feasibility for enrichment planting is worth investigating.

Ani Sulaiman, 1987. Lesser-known timbers - penaga. Timber Digest 79: 1-2.
Appanah, S. & Weinland, G., 1993. Planting quality timber trees in Peninsular Malaysia - a review. Malayan Forest Record No 38. 221 pp.
Ashton, P.S., 1988. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak. Vol. 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Sarawak branch, for Forest Department, Sarawak. pp. 187-198.
Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1969. Kayea Wall. and Mesua L. (Guttiferae). Reinwardtia 7: 425-431.
Maruyama, N., Fujita, S. & Okazaki, H., 1978. The properties of imported woods (IV). The specific gravity and mechanical properties of South-east Asian timbers. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University 28: 33-40.
Rai, S.N., 1983. Notes on nursery and regeneration techniques of some species occurring in southern tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Karnataka (India). Indian Forester 109: 127-136.
Soejono, 1978. Pohon nagasari (Mesua ferrea L.) [The nagasari tree (Mesua ferrea (L.)]. Buletin Kebun Raya 3(5): 145-148.
Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. pp. 28-29.
Whitmore, T.C., 1973. XVIII. Guttiferae. In: Kochummen, K.M. & Whitmore, T.C.: Notes on the systematy of Malayan phanerogams XVIII-XXII. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 26: 269-284.
Whitmore, T.C., 1983. Guttiferae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor): Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd edition. Vol. 2. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 227-236.

L. Chua (general part, selection of species), N. Tonanon (properties), J.M. Fundter (wood anatomy)

Mesua beccariana
Mesua elmeri
Mesua ferrea
Mesua ferruginea
Mesua grandis
Mesua kochummeniana
Mesua nuda
Mesua paniculata
Mesua philippinensis
Mesua racemosa

Chua, L., Tonanon, N. & Fundter, J.M., 1995. Mesua L.. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and Wong, W.C. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea

The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Mesua beccariana
Mesua elmeri
Mesua ferrea
Mesua ferruginea
Mesua grandis
Mesua kochummeniana
Mesua nuda
Mesua paniculata
Mesua philippinensis
Mesua racemosa