Record Number
4549
PROSEA Handbook Number
5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers
Taxon
Sterculia L.
Protologue
Sp. pl. 2: 1007 (1753); Gen. pl. (ed. 5): 438 (1754).
Family
STERCULIACEAE
Chromosome Numbers
x = 9, 10; Sterculia foetida, Sterculia longifolia, Sterculia rubiginosa: 2n = 40, for several African species 2n = 36
Trade Groups
Trade groups Sterculia: lightweight hardwood, e.g. Sterculia cordata Blume, Sterculia foetida L., Sterculia macrophylla Vent., Sterculia oblongata R.Br., Sterculia parviflora Roxb. ex G. Don, Sterculia shillinglawii F. v. Mueller.
The logs and wood are very similar to amberoi (Pterocymbium spp.), and care is needed when assigning them to assortments.
The logs and wood are very similar to amberoi (Pterocymbium spp.), and care is needed when assigning them to assortments.
Vernacular Names
Sterculia. Brunei: biris. Indonesia: kepuk, pimping. Malaysia: kelumpang (Peninsular), melebu, buah ayam antu sebayan, pelajau (Sarawak), kalumpang (Sabah). Burma (Myanmar): letkok shaw-byu. Cambodia: samrong, samrang. Thailand: po-khanun, samrong. Vietnam: tr[oo]m.
Origin and Geographic Distribution
Sterculia is a large pantropical genus of about 200 species. In Malesia, about 50 species occur. Borneo and New Guinea are the richest (22 species each, 5 of these endemic in Borneo and 12 endemic in New Guinea), followed by Peninsular Malaysia (17), Sumatra (15), Sulawesi, the Moluccas and the Philippines (each 10), Java (9) and the Lesser Sunda Islands (4). Sterculia foetida and Sterculia macrophylla are the tree species with the largest areas of distribution; they are found throughout South-East Asia.
Uses
The wood is used for light interior construction, packing cases, ceiling, veneer and plywood, concrete shuttering and heels of shoes. Sterculia wood is locally favoured for boat-building. It is suitable for pulp and paper manufacture.
The seeds of some species are edible; they are mostly roasted. Sterculia foetida is the main source of edible seeds. The seeds contain oil or fat, which may serve for frying or illumination and is sometimes used in batik work.
The bark of some species (e.g. Sterculia oblongata) yields silky and lustrous fibres which are in demand for making hats, handbags, place-mats and wallets.
Several parts of the plants are used in local medicine. An extract of Sterculia foetida bark may serve as an abortivum, ash made from the fruit-walls may be used against venereal diseases, and crushed leaves have been used in the Moluccas on wounds and as a febrifuge. The seeds may serve as an aphrodisiac. The fruit rind was formerly used in dyeing baths for batik in Indonesia. Some species (e.g. Sterculia foetida, Sterculia parviflora) are planted as ornamental or roadside tree.
The seeds of some species are edible; they are mostly roasted. Sterculia foetida is the main source of edible seeds. The seeds contain oil or fat, which may serve for frying or illumination and is sometimes used in batik work.
The bark of some species (e.g. Sterculia oblongata) yields silky and lustrous fibres which are in demand for making hats, handbags, place-mats and wallets.
Several parts of the plants are used in local medicine. An extract of Sterculia foetida bark may serve as an abortivum, ash made from the fruit-walls may be used against venereal diseases, and crushed leaves have been used in the Moluccas on wounds and as a febrifuge. The seeds may serve as an aphrodisiac. The fruit rind was formerly used in dyeing baths for batik in Indonesia. Some species (e.g. Sterculia foetida, Sterculia parviflora) are planted as ornamental or roadside tree.
Production and International Trade
In Papua New Guinea Sterculia is considered as commercially important, although it is ranked in the lowest MEP (Minimum Export Price) group (5), fetching a minimum price of US$ 40/m3 for saw logs. Japan imports some timber from Papua New Guinea, and only small amounts from elsewhere.
Properties
Sterculia yields a lightweight and comparatively soft wood. The heartwood is straw-coloured, greyish-white to sometimes pale brown or pale pinkish-brown, and not distinctly demarcated from the paler sapwood. The density is (120—)250—600(—760) kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. The grain is straight to shallowly interlocked, texture rather coarse and often uneven due to the presence of large rays. A silver-grain figure is often present on quarter-sawn surfaces. Usually the wood has no distinctive odour or taste, but Sterculia foetida wood has a pungent odour. Logs sometimes have a distinct brittle heart, and the outer part of the wood is sometimes very blue-stained.
Tests in the Philippines, New Guinea and New Britain showed the following mechanical properties at 12% moisture content: the modulus of rupture 32—54 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity 5975—7320 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 21—23.5 N/mm2, compression perpendicular to grain 2.5 N/mm2, shear 4 N/mm2, cleavage 23.5 N/mm tangential, Janka side hardness 1115—1340 N and Janka end hardness 1950 N.
The rates of shrinkage are moderate: from green to 15% moisture content 0.8—1.3% radial and 3.2—4.2% tangential, and from green to oven dry 2.3—3.5% radial and 6.5—8.0% tangential. Air drying should be done carefully as the wood is sometimes prone to collapse, checking, cupping and warping, but too slow drying may cause serious degrade from staining; treating with anti-stain solution is recommended. Although Sterculia wood sometimes exhibits a very high initial moisture content (occasionally over 200%, e.g. in Sterculia vitiensis Seem. from Fiji), boards dry rapidly without much degrade. A high-humidity treatment is recommended at the end of drying to relieve drying stresses. Wood of Sterculia macrophylla from New Britain is reported as easy to kiln dry; checking and deformation is small to moderate and honeycombing small. Boards 25 mm thick can be kiln dried from 70% to 10% moisture content in 1.5—2 days. If dried properly, movement of the wood in service is moderate.
Sterculia wood is rather easy to work with machine and hand tools but it often has a woolly surface with a tendency to springing. It is easy and fast to saw. The wood is often brittle and fissile and is then not suitable for boring, mortising, scraping and turning. It planes well, but a cutting angle of 20° is recommended to reduce tearing of grain; it polishes, stains and sands well, but requires filler. The nailing properties are moderate to good, but sometimes the holding power is poor. The steam-bending properties of Sterculia macrophylla wood are rated as poor. The gluing properties are satisfactory. The veneer has a fuzzy surface and requires a fairly long time to dry. It is suitable for core or back veneer in plywood. The wood is suitable for the production of sulphate pulp for paper making.
Sterculia wood is rated as non-durable in contact with the ground or exposed to the weather. It is easily attacked by pinhole borers, powder-post beetles, termites and marine borers. It is easy to moderately difficult to treat with preservatives. Wood of Sterculia macrophylla from Irian Jaya has been treated successfully with BFCA preservative (a mixture of boron, fluorine, chromium and arsenicum), but a dip diffusion treatment did not give satisfactory results. The retention of Sterculia macrophylla wood from New Britain was 530—600 kg/m3 using a pressure treatment. Heartwood is often resistant to preservatives due to the presence of tyloses occluding the vessels.
Wood of Sterculia macrophylla contains 71—78% holocellulose, 41—48% 'ALFA'-cellulose, 15—26% lignin, 18% pentosan and 1.7% ash. The solubility is 0.9—1.1% in alcohol-benzene, 2.4% in cold water, 3.5% in hot water and 17.8% in a 1% NaOH solution. Wood of Sterculia ceramica contains 67% holocellulose, 22% lignin, 18% pentosan and 2.8 % ash. The solubility is 2.9 % in alcohol-benzene, 5.6% in hot water and 21.4 % in a 1% NaOH solution.
Tests in the Philippines, New Guinea and New Britain showed the following mechanical properties at 12% moisture content: the modulus of rupture 32—54 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity 5975—7320 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 21—23.5 N/mm2, compression perpendicular to grain 2.5 N/mm2, shear 4 N/mm2, cleavage 23.5 N/mm tangential, Janka side hardness 1115—1340 N and Janka end hardness 1950 N.
The rates of shrinkage are moderate: from green to 15% moisture content 0.8—1.3% radial and 3.2—4.2% tangential, and from green to oven dry 2.3—3.5% radial and 6.5—8.0% tangential. Air drying should be done carefully as the wood is sometimes prone to collapse, checking, cupping and warping, but too slow drying may cause serious degrade from staining; treating with anti-stain solution is recommended. Although Sterculia wood sometimes exhibits a very high initial moisture content (occasionally over 200%, e.g. in Sterculia vitiensis Seem. from Fiji), boards dry rapidly without much degrade. A high-humidity treatment is recommended at the end of drying to relieve drying stresses. Wood of Sterculia macrophylla from New Britain is reported as easy to kiln dry; checking and deformation is small to moderate and honeycombing small. Boards 25 mm thick can be kiln dried from 70% to 10% moisture content in 1.5—2 days. If dried properly, movement of the wood in service is moderate.
Sterculia wood is rather easy to work with machine and hand tools but it often has a woolly surface with a tendency to springing. It is easy and fast to saw. The wood is often brittle and fissile and is then not suitable for boring, mortising, scraping and turning. It planes well, but a cutting angle of 20° is recommended to reduce tearing of grain; it polishes, stains and sands well, but requires filler. The nailing properties are moderate to good, but sometimes the holding power is poor. The steam-bending properties of Sterculia macrophylla wood are rated as poor. The gluing properties are satisfactory. The veneer has a fuzzy surface and requires a fairly long time to dry. It is suitable for core or back veneer in plywood. The wood is suitable for the production of sulphate pulp for paper making.
Sterculia wood is rated as non-durable in contact with the ground or exposed to the weather. It is easily attacked by pinhole borers, powder-post beetles, termites and marine borers. It is easy to moderately difficult to treat with preservatives. Wood of Sterculia macrophylla from Irian Jaya has been treated successfully with BFCA preservative (a mixture of boron, fluorine, chromium and arsenicum), but a dip diffusion treatment did not give satisfactory results. The retention of Sterculia macrophylla wood from New Britain was 530—600 kg/m3 using a pressure treatment. Heartwood is often resistant to preservatives due to the presence of tyloses occluding the vessels.
Wood of Sterculia macrophylla contains 71—78% holocellulose, 41—48% 'ALFA'-cellulose, 15—26% lignin, 18% pentosan and 1.7% ash. The solubility is 0.9—1.1% in alcohol-benzene, 2.4% in cold water, 3.5% in hot water and 17.8% in a 1% NaOH solution. Wood of Sterculia ceramica contains 67% holocellulose, 22% lignin, 18% pentosan and 2.8 % ash. The solubility is 2.9 % in alcohol-benzene, 5.6% in hot water and 21.4 % in a 1% NaOH solution.
Description
Shrubs or small to large, evergreen or briefly deciduous trees, large trees with tall straight to convex buttresses; bark surface smooth or in large trees with sparse square-section vertical fissures, more or less hoop-marked, usually pale brown or greyish-white, inner bark fibrous, often pale brown; crown irregular or in large trees dome-shaped; branches sympodial, often in false whorls at regular intervals, twigs thick or slender, sometimes swollen at apices. Leaves arranged spirally, often crowded at apices of twigs, usually simple and entire, but sometimes palmately compound (Sterculia foetida), leaf blades rounded to acuminate at apex, pinnately or palmately veined, lower surface glabrous to densely stellate or peltate-stellate hairy or minutely scaly; petiole thickened at apex; stipules present, ovate, lanceolate or acicular, caducous or persistent. Inflorescences axillary, subterminal, lateral or cauliflorous, paniculate or racemose, mostly stellate pubescent, sometimes glabrous. Flowers actinomorphic, apetalous, with articulate pedicel, unisexual but female flowers apparently bisexual, male flowers numerous, female flowers fewer and usually terminating the inflorescence or its branches, generally larger than male flowers; calyx often reddish, with obconical, campanulate, urceolate or tubular tube, glabrous or hairy or with nectary glands inside, (4—)5(—6)-lobed, lobes valvate, spreading or coherent at apices; anthers in male flower in a globose head on top of a slender androphore, (4—)5—45 together, sessile; ovaries in female flower (3—)5(—6), superior and placed on top of a gynandrophore together with more or less rudimentary anthers, slightly coherent, mostly densely pubescent, 2—20-ovuled, styles free, coherent or connate, stigmas free, mostly curved. Fruit consisting of 3—5 follicles; follicles free and mostly stellately spreading, leathery or woody, sessile or short-stalked, generally beaked, dehiscent, pink, scarlet or bright red, 1—20-seeded. Seed ellipsoid or obovoid, with blackish sarcotesta, dangling on long funicle before falling, albuminous; cotyledons usually thin; embryo situated opposite to the funicle. Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons usually (but not always) emerging from the seed-coat.
Wood Anatomy
— Macroscopic characters:
Heartwood yellowish-white, pale yellowish or greyish-white, not distinctly demarcated from the paler sapwood. Grain generally straight. Texture coarse, silver-grain prominent due to wide rays. Growth rings sometimes fairly distinct; vessels visible to the naked eye; large rays distinct to the naked eye on all surfaces; ripple marks often distinct.
— Microscopic characters:
Growth rings sometimes fairly distinct due to interrupted light-coloured bands of parenchyma. Vessels diffuse, 2—3/mm2 (Sterculia macrophylla) to 4—12/mm2 (Sterculia shillinglawii), solitary and in radial multiples of 2—4(—6) and occasionally in clusters, the percentage of solitary vessels widely varying with samples and species, oval to slightly angular, 200—350 µm in tangential diameter; perforations simple; intervessel pits alternate, slightly angular, c. 6 µm in diameter; vessel-ray and vessel-parenchyma pits generally almost similar to intervessel pits but sometimes elongated and scalariform (Sterculia shillinglawii); tyloses generally absent. Fibres 1.2—2.6 mm long, very thin-walled (wall c. 2 µm thick), with numerous simple to minutely bordered pits in radial walls, often storied. Parenchyma vasicentric, in broad sheaths, aliform and sometimes confluent to narrowly banded; apotracheal parenchyma diffuse-in-aggregates, abundant, in 2—4-celled strands. Rays 2—4/mm, of 2 distinct sizes, 1(—2)-seriate and 3—13-seriate (Sterculia macrophylla) to 3—19-seriate (Sterculia shillinglawii), up to 4.7 mm high in Sterculia macrophylla, up to 7.5 mm high in Sterculia shillinglawii, small rays usually storied, heterocellular often with several rows of upright and sometimes square marginal cells, Kribs type heterogeneous II(—III); sheath cells distinct, often in more than one layer. Prismatic crystals present, usually in chambered axial parenchyma cells, in chains of up to 6 or scarce (Sterculia macrophylla), and also in sheath cells and marginal ray cells. All elements except large rays storied.
Species studied: Sterculia ceramica, Sterculia macrophylla, Sterculia shillinglawii.
Heartwood yellowish-white, pale yellowish or greyish-white, not distinctly demarcated from the paler sapwood. Grain generally straight. Texture coarse, silver-grain prominent due to wide rays. Growth rings sometimes fairly distinct; vessels visible to the naked eye; large rays distinct to the naked eye on all surfaces; ripple marks often distinct.
— Microscopic characters:
Growth rings sometimes fairly distinct due to interrupted light-coloured bands of parenchyma. Vessels diffuse, 2—3/mm2 (Sterculia macrophylla) to 4—12/mm2 (Sterculia shillinglawii), solitary and in radial multiples of 2—4(—6) and occasionally in clusters, the percentage of solitary vessels widely varying with samples and species, oval to slightly angular, 200—350 µm in tangential diameter; perforations simple; intervessel pits alternate, slightly angular, c. 6 µm in diameter; vessel-ray and vessel-parenchyma pits generally almost similar to intervessel pits but sometimes elongated and scalariform (Sterculia shillinglawii); tyloses generally absent. Fibres 1.2—2.6 mm long, very thin-walled (wall c. 2 µm thick), with numerous simple to minutely bordered pits in radial walls, often storied. Parenchyma vasicentric, in broad sheaths, aliform and sometimes confluent to narrowly banded; apotracheal parenchyma diffuse-in-aggregates, abundant, in 2—4-celled strands. Rays 2—4/mm, of 2 distinct sizes, 1(—2)-seriate and 3—13-seriate (Sterculia macrophylla) to 3—19-seriate (Sterculia shillinglawii), up to 4.7 mm high in Sterculia macrophylla, up to 7.5 mm high in Sterculia shillinglawii, small rays usually storied, heterocellular often with several rows of upright and sometimes square marginal cells, Kribs type heterogeneous II(—III); sheath cells distinct, often in more than one layer. Prismatic crystals present, usually in chambered axial parenchyma cells, in chains of up to 6 or scarce (Sterculia macrophylla), and also in sheath cells and marginal ray cells. All elements except large rays storied.
Species studied: Sterculia ceramica, Sterculia macrophylla, Sterculia shillinglawii.
Growth and Development
The mean annual growth in a 15-year-old trial plantation of Sterculia foetida in Java was 0.8 m in height and 1.1—1.3 cm in diameter. A single 22-year-old Sterculia parviflora tree in the arboretum of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia was 10 m tall and 9.6 cm in diameter.
In some species which have entire leaves in mature trees, the leaves of saplings are deeply lobed; this is the case in Sterculia comosa, Sterculia macrophylla and Sterculia morobeensis. Many Sterculia trees are evergreen, but often leaf change is in flushes; immediately after the old leaves are shed buds start sprouting and the trees are bare for no more than a few days. Some species are distinctly deciduous (e.g. Sterculia edelfeltii, Sterculia foetida, Sterculia macrophylla, Sterculia parviflora and Sterculia peekelii).
The tree architecture of Sterculia foetida (and several other species) is according to Aubréville's model, with a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth and spiral phyllotaxis, and plagiotropic branches in tiers.
Sterculia seems to have male and bisexual flowers. However, the apparently bisexual flowers are probably functionally female, as the anthers are smaller than in male flowers and contain imperfect pollen. The mostly fragrant, but sometimes fetid-smelling (Sterculia foetida) flowers are pollinated by insects such as flies and beetles. In Peninsular Malaysia a single Sterculia parviflora tree studied did not flower every year, and only in some of the years of flowering and fruiting did it produce numerous seeds.
The fruits ripen in 4—6 months. The lustrous seeds with black sarcotesta are very conspicuous in the widely opened, often brilliant coral or crimson-coloured follicles and are eaten and distributed by birds (e.g. hornbills) and small mammals (e.g. squirrels), although there seems to be little to eat on the seeds except the sarcotesta. The seeds of Sterculia foetida, which often grows near the coast, float in water and may be distributed by sea currents.
In some species which have entire leaves in mature trees, the leaves of saplings are deeply lobed; this is the case in Sterculia comosa, Sterculia macrophylla and Sterculia morobeensis. Many Sterculia trees are evergreen, but often leaf change is in flushes; immediately after the old leaves are shed buds start sprouting and the trees are bare for no more than a few days. Some species are distinctly deciduous (e.g. Sterculia edelfeltii, Sterculia foetida, Sterculia macrophylla, Sterculia parviflora and Sterculia peekelii).
The tree architecture of Sterculia foetida (and several other species) is according to Aubréville's model, with a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth and spiral phyllotaxis, and plagiotropic branches in tiers.
Sterculia seems to have male and bisexual flowers. However, the apparently bisexual flowers are probably functionally female, as the anthers are smaller than in male flowers and contain imperfect pollen. The mostly fragrant, but sometimes fetid-smelling (Sterculia foetida) flowers are pollinated by insects such as flies and beetles. In Peninsular Malaysia a single Sterculia parviflora tree studied did not flower every year, and only in some of the years of flowering and fruiting did it produce numerous seeds.
The fruits ripen in 4—6 months. The lustrous seeds with black sarcotesta are very conspicuous in the widely opened, often brilliant coral or crimson-coloured follicles and are eaten and distributed by birds (e.g. hornbills) and small mammals (e.g. squirrels), although there seems to be little to eat on the seeds except the sarcotesta. The seeds of Sterculia foetida, which often grows near the coast, float in water and may be distributed by sea currents.
Other Botanical Information
Sterculia belongs to the tribe Sterculieae, together with the Malesian genera Brachychiton, Firmiana, Pterocymbium, Pterygota and Scaphium. It differs from these genera mainly by its fruits and seeds. Brachychiton seems to be most closely related to Sterculia, differing only in a few seed characters. The African genus Cola also seems to be very close to Sterculia, but differs in its seeds lacking albumen and having thick cotyledons.
Ecology
Sterculia occurs in lowland forest, from dryland to swampy forest, and usually not above 1500 m altitude. However, Sterculia monticola and Sterculia tantraensis may ascend in New Guinea to over 2000 m. Most species in South-East Asia are confined to rain forest in humid climates, but some species (e.g. Sterculia foetida) also grow in seasonal climates and can well stand a distinct dry season. Sterculia trees usually occur scattered, apparently as distantly separated individuals in the understorey, but some species reach the canopy of the forest or are even emergent.
Propagation and planting
Sterculia foetida has 460—640 dry seeds/kg. Seed germinates rapidly; germination is 70% in 8—16 days in Sterculia cordata, 80—100% in 8—19 days in Sterculia foetida, 55—60% in 5—23 days in Sterculia parviflora and 85% in 7—17 days after sowing in Sterculia rubiginosa. Seed should be sown no deeper than 1 cm and in full light. Sterculia foetida is successfully sown directly, using two seeds per planting hole, but seedlings are difficult to transplant due to their well developed taproot. The spacing applied in East Java is 1 m 3 m, sometimes mixed with other species, with Sterculia foetida at 1 m 6 m.
Stumps coppice freely and the trees grow easily from cuttings. Fence posts root easily and sprout, to make a live fence.
Stumps coppice freely and the trees grow easily from cuttings. Fence posts root easily and sprout, to make a live fence.
Silviculture and Management
As light-demanding species, Sterculia should be given ample space to develop and a spacing of 1 m 6 m proves better diameter growth than one of 1 m 3 m. The self pruning capacity of the lower, heavy branches of Sterculia foetida is satisfactory. Due to its open crown, weeds easily develop underneath.
Harvesting
In the Philippines, bark of Sterculia oblongata is stripped during the rainy season as the moist bark can be harvested without damage to the cambium. Strips covering half of the circumference of the tree are removed.
Yield
In a 15-year-old trial of Sterculia foetida, mean annual increment is 2.6—3.9 m3/ha. The wood volume of a clear log (60 cm in diameter at breast height) of Sterculia macrophylla from New Britain was 4.7 m3.
Handling After Harvest
Logs should be extracted rapidly from the forest after logging as they are susceptible to blue stain and insect attack. The bark must be soaked in water for 10—12 days before the fibres can be separated.
Genetic Resources
Sterculia trees are rarely logged selectively because the timber is not in great demand and the trees do not occur gregariously in the forest but scattered. They do not seem to be particularly liable to genetic erosion.
Prospects
Sterculia does not seem to have good prospects for timber production. The wood quality is rather poor and the applications are limited, as the wood is not strong and non-durable. Sterculia might be useful in plantations of fast-growing trees for pulp and low-quality timber, but research should first be focused on growth rate, propagation and planting, and silvicultural techniques.
Literature
All Nippon Checkers Corporation, 1989. Illustrated commercial foreign woods in Japan. Tokyo. p. 135.
Ashton, P.S., 1988. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak. Vol. 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 408-424.
Bolza, E. & Kloot, N.H., 1966. The mechanical properties of 81 New Guinea timbers. Division of Forest Products Technological Paper No 41. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Melbourne. pp. 36-39.
Cockburn, P.F., 1976. Trees of Sabah. Sabah Forest Record No 10. Vol. 1. Forest Department Sabah, Sandakan. pp. 243-251.
Kochummen, K.M., 1973. Sterculiaceae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor): Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd edition. Vol. 2. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 353-382.
Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. pp. 140-141.
Meniado, J.A., Tamolang, F.N., Lopez, F.R., America, W.M. & Alonzo, D.S., 1975. Wood identification handbook for Philippine timbers. Vol. 1. Government Printing Office, Manila. pp. 338-342.
Tantra, I.G.M., 1976. A revision of the genus Sterculia L. in Malesia. Pengumuman Lembaga Penelitian Hutan 102. 194 pp.
van Royen, P., 1964. Manual of the forest trees of Papua and New Guinea. Part 3 - Sterculiaceae. Division of Botany, Department of Forests, Administration of Papua and New Guinea, Port Moresby. pp. 30-37.
Working group on utilization of tropical woods, 1978. Properties of some Papua New Guinea woods relating with manufacturing processes VI-IX. Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute Japan No 299: 23-187.
Ashton, P.S., 1988. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak. Vol. 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 408-424.
Bolza, E. & Kloot, N.H., 1966. The mechanical properties of 81 New Guinea timbers. Division of Forest Products Technological Paper No 41. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Melbourne. pp. 36-39.
Cockburn, P.F., 1976. Trees of Sabah. Sabah Forest Record No 10. Vol. 1. Forest Department Sabah, Sandakan. pp. 243-251.
Kochummen, K.M., 1973. Sterculiaceae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor): Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd edition. Vol. 2. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 353-382.
Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. pp. 140-141.
Meniado, J.A., Tamolang, F.N., Lopez, F.R., America, W.M. & Alonzo, D.S., 1975. Wood identification handbook for Philippine timbers. Vol. 1. Government Printing Office, Manila. pp. 338-342.
Tantra, I.G.M., 1976. A revision of the genus Sterculia L. in Malesia. Pengumuman Lembaga Penelitian Hutan 102. 194 pp.
van Royen, P., 1964. Manual of the forest trees of Papua and New Guinea. Part 3 - Sterculiaceae. Division of Botany, Department of Forests, Administration of Papua and New Guinea, Port Moresby. pp. 30-37.
Working group on utilization of tropical woods, 1978. Properties of some Papua New Guinea woods relating with manufacturing processes VI-IX. Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute Japan No 299: 23-187.
Author(s)
R.H.M.J. Lemmens (general part, selection of species), D.S. Alonzo (properties), S. Sudo (wood anatomy)
Sterculia ampla
Sterculia ceramica
Sterculia comosa
Sterculia cordata
Sterculia edelfeltii
Sterculia foetida
Sterculia gilva
Sterculia insularis
Sterculia longifolia
Sterculia macrophylla
Sterculia megistophylla
Sterculia monticola
Sterculia morobeensis
Sterculia oblongata
Sterculia parviflora
Sterculia peekelii
Sterculia rubiginosa
Sterculia shillinglawii
Sterculia tantraensis
Sterculia urceolata
Sterculia ceramica
Sterculia comosa
Sterculia cordata
Sterculia edelfeltii
Sterculia foetida
Sterculia gilva
Sterculia insularis
Sterculia longifolia
Sterculia macrophylla
Sterculia megistophylla
Sterculia monticola
Sterculia morobeensis
Sterculia oblongata
Sterculia parviflora
Sterculia peekelii
Sterculia rubiginosa
Sterculia shillinglawii
Sterculia tantraensis
Sterculia urceolata
Correct Citation of this Article
Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Alonzo, D.S. & Sudo, S., 1995. Sterculia L.. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and Wong, W.C. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2): Timber trees; Minor commercial timbers. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea
Selection of Species
The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Sterculia ampla
Sterculia ceramica
Sterculia comosa
Sterculia cordata
Sterculia edelfeltii
Sterculia foetida
Sterculia gilva
Sterculia insularis
Sterculia longifolia
Sterculia macrophylla
Sterculia megistophylla
Sterculia monticola
Sterculia morobeensis
Sterculia oblongata
Sterculia parviflora
Sterculia peekelii
Sterculia rubiginosa
Sterculia shillinglawii
Sterculia tantraensis
Sterculia urceolata
Sterculia ampla
Sterculia ceramica
Sterculia comosa
Sterculia cordata
Sterculia edelfeltii
Sterculia foetida
Sterculia gilva
Sterculia insularis
Sterculia longifolia
Sterculia macrophylla
Sterculia megistophylla
Sterculia monticola
Sterculia morobeensis
Sterculia oblongata
Sterculia parviflora
Sterculia peekelii
Sterculia rubiginosa
Sterculia shillinglawii
Sterculia tantraensis
Sterculia urceolata
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