Record Number
5453
PROSEA Handbook Number
5(3): Timber trees; Lesser-known timbers
Taxon
Garcinia L.
Protologue
Sp. pl. 1: 443 (1753); Gen. pl., ed. 5: 202 (1754).
Family
GUTTIFERAE
Chromosome Numbers
x = 8, 16; G. atroviridis Griffith ex T. Anderson: 2n = 60, G. cowa: n = 26, G. hanburyi Hook. f.: 2n = 44, G. hombroniana: 2n = 48, 76, G. mangostana: 2n = 56-76, 88-90, 96, 98-110, 120-130, G. nervosa: 2n = 56, G. parvifolia: 2n = 44, 72, 88, G. prainiana King: 2n = 60, G. xanthochymus Hook. f.: 2n = 72, 80, 96
Vernacular Names
Kandis (trade name). Garcinia (En). Philippines: bunog. Thailand: cha muang. Vietnam: b[uws]a.
Origin and Geographic Distribution
Garcinia probably comprises some 200 species, mainly in the Old World tropics and a few species in tropical America. South-East Asia is the main centre of diversity, with around 100 species.
Uses
Garcinia is used for temporary construction, poles, interior trim, furniture and fencing. The heavier species are suitable for semi-permanent constructions, posts, beams, joists, rafters, bridge building, piling, flooring, paving blocks, vehicle bodies, shingles, tool handles, wooden pegs, rulers, turnery, chessmen and pallets. The wood yields a very good charcoal.
Several species are well-known fruit trees, the most important being the mangosteen (G. mangostana). Fruits of some species are sour and made into jams, used as a substitute for tamarind or to fix dyes. The rind of the green fruit is often dried and used as a condiment. The seed of some species contains an edible oil. The yellow latex of G. hanburyi from Thailand and G. morella (Gaertn.) Desr. from India is the source of "gamboge"" paint. Leaves of G. cowa can be eaten as a vegetable either raw or in curries and have a sour taste. A decoction of the roots of G. hombroniana is given after childbirth; both roots and leaves have been applied for itch.
Several species are well-known fruit trees, the most important being the mangosteen (G. mangostana). Fruits of some species are sour and made into jams, used as a substitute for tamarind or to fix dyes. The rind of the green fruit is often dried and used as a condiment. The seed of some species contains an edible oil. The yellow latex of G. hanburyi from Thailand and G. morella (Gaertn.) Desr. from India is the source of "gamboge"" paint. Leaves of G. cowa can be eaten as a vegetable either raw or in curries and have a sour taste. A decoction of the roots of G. hombroniana is given after childbirth; both roots and leaves have been applied for itch.
Production and International Trade
Garcinia wood generally enters the market in mixed consignments of medium-weight hardwood. In 1992 only 116 m3 of logs with a value of about US$ 50 000 was exported from Sabah. In 1996 the export of Garcinia logs from Papua New Guinea amounted to 30 000 m3 with an average free-on-board (FOB) price of 98/m3.
Properties
Garcinia yields a medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 690-1120 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content, although for G. parvifolia 410 kg/m3 has also been recorded. Heartwood variable in colour, yellow in many species but red to dark red-brown in a few others (e.g. G. hombroniana and G. malaccensis), usually not clearly differentiated from the paler, rather wide sapwood, in G. hombroniana the red-brown sapwood is distinct from the dark red-brown heartwood; grain straight or slightly irregular; texture fine to moderately fine and even; parenchyma conspicuous in yellow timbers on tangential surface. Growth rings indistinct or visible due to colour differences or fewer parenchyma bands; vessels very small to medium-sized, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-5 and with occasional clusters, reddish-yellow gum deposits sometimes abundant, tyloses very rare; parenchyma moderately abundant to abundant, apotracheal in interrupted, narrow bands, and paratracheal vasicentric, aliform or confluent; rays very fine to medium-sized; ripple marks absent; radial canals observed in G. cowa.
Shrinkage of the wood when seasoned is high to very high and it is susceptible to checking; back-sawn boards are particularly likely to warp considerably. The wood is moderately hard to very hard and moderately strong to very strong. It is easy to saw and finishes well, but the harder timber is difficult to work and dulls cutting edges of tools. The wood is usually moderately durable but is very durable in some species like G. ituman. The heartwood is reportedly resistant to pressure treatment although for G. latissima a retention of about 320 kg/m3 has been determined. The heartwood is moderately resistant to resistant to dry-wood termites. The sapwood is non-susceptible to Lyctus in some species but susceptible in others.
See also the tables on microscopic wood anatomy and wood properties.
Shrinkage of the wood when seasoned is high to very high and it is susceptible to checking; back-sawn boards are particularly likely to warp considerably. The wood is moderately hard to very hard and moderately strong to very strong. It is easy to saw and finishes well, but the harder timber is difficult to work and dulls cutting edges of tools. The wood is usually moderately durable but is very durable in some species like G. ituman. The heartwood is reportedly resistant to pressure treatment although for G. latissima a retention of about 320 kg/m3 has been determined. The heartwood is moderately resistant to resistant to dry-wood termites. The sapwood is non-susceptible to Lyctus in some species but susceptible in others.
See also the tables on microscopic wood anatomy and wood properties.
Botany
Evergreen, generally dioecious shrubs or small to medium-sized trees up to 25(-33) m tall; bole straight, branchless for up to 18 m, up to 60(-100) cm in diameter, occasionally with small buttresses, often knobbly; bark surface smooth to adherent scaly, dark brown or black, inner bark yellow, with often copious yellow or sometimes white exudate; crown dense, often narrowly conical. Twigs square. Leaves decussate, but successive pairs in 1 plane by torsion of the twig, simple, entire, clasping the twig at base and the uppermost pair concealing the terminal bud; stipules absent. Inflorescence axillary. Flowers solitary or in small clusters or occasionally short racemes, unisexual, 4-5-merous; sepals rather fleshy, persistent in fruit; petals rather fleshy, white, yellow or reddish. Male flower with many stamens which are united in 4-5 bundles or a lobed ring or in a central globose mass, anthers sessile, with 2 or 4 cells; ovary present or absent. Female flower with a superior, 4-5(-12)-locular ovary with a single ovule in each cell, stigma large and often conspicuous. Fruit a leathery to woody berry with 1 to several seeds, tipped with the stigmatic remains. Seed with arillode. Seedling with hypogeal germination; cotyledons not emergent; hypocotyl elongated; the shoot emerging from one end of the seed, the root from the other; first few leaves scale-like, all leaves decussate, conduplicate.
Trees show monopodial growth. Branches arise from the trunk at an acute angle, then curve horizontally or droop. Growth is generally slow. Young leaves are pink. Apomixis is common in Garcinia: many species can produce seed asexually as well as sexually. Polyembryony is also quite common. Wild species flower at night and have a characteristic strong odour. Nectar is secreted on stigmas and pollination is by insects; G. hombroniana is pollinated by Trigona bees. Flowering is seasonal, usually after a period of pronounced dry weather. In Peninsular Malaysia G. parvifolia flowers regularly in February-April, G. hombroniana from January to June. In Papua New Guinea Garcinia species flower in May-July. The flowering-to-fruiting period of unidentified Garcinia trees in Peninsular Malaysia is 2-6 months. Seed dispersal is among others by orang-utans.
Garcinia includes the former genera Pentaphalangium, Septogarcinia and Tripetalum and is placed in the subfamily Clusioideae. Together with the subfamily Calophylloideae it is sometimes regarded as a distinct family: Clusiaceae. A taxonomic revision of Garcinia was in progress at the time of writing, but until it is published the status of many species remains doubtful: estimates of the total number of species range from 100 to 400.
Trees show monopodial growth. Branches arise from the trunk at an acute angle, then curve horizontally or droop. Growth is generally slow. Young leaves are pink. Apomixis is common in Garcinia: many species can produce seed asexually as well as sexually. Polyembryony is also quite common. Wild species flower at night and have a characteristic strong odour. Nectar is secreted on stigmas and pollination is by insects; G. hombroniana is pollinated by Trigona bees. Flowering is seasonal, usually after a period of pronounced dry weather. In Peninsular Malaysia G. parvifolia flowers regularly in February-April, G. hombroniana from January to June. In Papua New Guinea Garcinia species flower in May-July. The flowering-to-fruiting period of unidentified Garcinia trees in Peninsular Malaysia is 2-6 months. Seed dispersal is among others by orang-utans.
Garcinia includes the former genera Pentaphalangium, Septogarcinia and Tripetalum and is placed in the subfamily Clusioideae. Together with the subfamily Calophylloideae it is sometimes regarded as a distinct family: Clusiaceae. A taxonomic revision of Garcinia was in progress at the time of writing, but until it is published the status of many species remains doubtful: estimates of the total number of species range from 100 to 400.
Ecology
Wild Garcinia species are generally found scattered and are second storey trees of primary, lowland or, less often, montane rain forest, up to 900(-2100) m altitude. Some species may be encountered in secondary forest (e.g. G. hombroniana, G. parvifolia) where they may be gregarious. Garcinia generally occurs in well-drained habitats, but e.g. G. bancana, G. maingayi, G. nigrolineata and G. parvifolia have been reported from swamp forest as well. Several species grow on limestone soils.
Silviculture and Management
Garcinia can be propagated by seed, although vegetative propagation is also used for cultivated fruit species. G. xanthochymus has about 200 seeds/kg. The seed is considered "recalcitrant"" and thus sensitive to desiccation and chilling, and can only be stored for a few weeks. Many germination trials have been conducted on Garcinia species in Peninsular Malaysia. It appeared that a few species, including G. mangostana, started germinating after about 3 weeks and germination was completed about 2.5 months after sowing. In most species, however, germination did not start until after about 3 months and in some species was not completed until after 1.5 years. Usually, the germination rate is over 50% and there are indications that germination is enhanced by removing the arillode. In a 676 ha sample of rain forest in Peninsular Malaysia an average of only 2.3 Garcinia trees measuring over 40 cm in diameter per 100 ha was found. Garcinia is not fire-resistant and can stand considerable shade.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
It is difficult to assess the risk of genetic erosion of Garcinia as no reliable taxonomic treatment is available. Some of the species presented below have a narrow geographical distribution and may be vulnerable due to destruction of their habitat. In Songkhla, southern Thailand, 118 accessions belonging to 8 Garcinia species are maintained for their horticultural value.
Prospects
Those Garcinia species with very hard and durable wood have potential for specialty use, but very little is known of their silvicultural aspects.
Literature
[40]All Nippon Checkers Corporation, 1989. Illustrated commercial foreign woods in Japan. Tokyo. 262 pp.
[61]Ashton, P.S., 1988. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak. Vol. 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. 490 pp.
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[150]Brown, W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-1943 edition. 3 volumes. Technical Bulletin 10. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Vol. 1(1951) 590 pp., Vol. 2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol. 3 (1957) 507 pp.
[151]Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching, Sarawak. xviii + 369 pp.
[162]Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Sandakan. xviii + 501 pp.
[163]Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.
[193]Chudnoff, M., 1980. Tropical timbers of the world. Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Madison. 831 pp.
[209]Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd edition. 2 volumes. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. 774 pp.
[235]de Guzman, E.D., Umali, R.M. & Sotalbo, E.D., 1986. Guide to the Philippine flora and fauna. Vol. 3: Dipterocarps, non-dipterocarps. Natural Resources Management Centre, Ministry of Natural Resources, Quezon City & University of the Philippines, Los Baños. xx + 414 pp.
[259]den Berger, L.G., 1926. Mechanical properties of Dutch East Indian timbers. Korte Mededeelingen No 12. Proefstation voor het Boschwezen, Buitenzorg. viii + 63 pp.
[264]Department of Forestry, Fiji, 1967. Fiji timbers and their uses. No 17. The properties and potential uses of Laubu (Garcinia myrtifolia). Department of Forestry, Suva.
[267]Desch, H.E., 1941-1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp.
[300]Eddowes, P.J., 1977. Commercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses. Forest Products Research Centre, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby. xiv + 195 pp.
[304]Eddowes, P.J., 1995-1997. The forests and timbers of Papua New Guinea. (unpublished data).
[348]Forest Products Research Centre, 1967. Properties and uses of Papua and New Guinea timbers. Forest Products Research Centre, Port Moresby. 30 pp.
[396]Ha, C.O., Sands, V.E., Soepadmo, E. & Jong, K., 1988. Reproductive patterns of selected understorey trees in the Malaysian rain forest: the sexual species. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 97: 295-316.
[436]Heyne, K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlands-Indië [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd edition, 3 volumes. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch-Indië. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.).
[464]Ilic, J., 1990. The CSIRO macro key for hardwood identification. CSIRO, Highett. 125 pp.
[536]Keating, W.G. & Bolza, E., 1982. Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Vol. 1. South-East Asia, northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press Proprietary Ltd., Melbourne, Sydney & London. 362 pp.
[543]Keng, H., 1990. The concise flora of Singapore. Gymnosperms and dicotyledons. Singapore University Press, Singapore. 222 pp.
[595]Koorders, S.H. & Valeton, T., 1894-1915. Bijdrage tot de kennis der boomsoorten van Java [Contribution to the knowledge of the tree species of Java]. 13 parts. G. Kolff & Co., Batavia, 's-Gravenhage.
[628]Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1976. Notes on Clusiaceae of Sri Lanka and reduction of Pentaphalangium Warb. Ceylon Journal of Science, Biological Sciences n.s. 12: 55-72.
[657]Lamothe, L., Arentz, F. & Karimbaram, R., 1990. Germination of cassowary digested and manually defleshed fruit. Papua New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 35(1-4): 37-42.
[668]Lauterbach, C., 1922. Beiträge zur Flora von Papuasien IX. Die Guttiferen Papuasiens [Contributions to the flora of Papuasia IX. The Guttiferae of Papuasia]. Botanische Jahrbücher 58: 1-49.
[672]Lecomte, H., 1907-1950. Flore générale de l'Indo-Chine [General flora of Indo-China]. 7 vols & Supplément. Masson & Cie, Paris.
[694]Leighton, M. & Leighton, D.R., 1983. Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rain forest. In: Sutton, S.L., Whitmore, T.C. & Chadwick, A.C. (Editors): Tropical rain forest: ecology and management. Special publication number 2 of the British Ecological Society. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Boston, Melbourne. pp. 181-196.
[696]Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen. 195 pp.
[704]Lim, M., Hemapat, T., Wanachit, W. & Suwankiri, P., 1986. Collection of Lansium and Garcinia in southern Thailand. Newsletter 10(2): 10-12. IBPGR Regional Committee for Southeast Asia, Bangkok.
[713]Loke, S.Y., 1993. Ciri-ciri biji benih beberapa species Garcinia [Seed types of some Garcinia species]. Thesis Bachelor of Science, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 97 pp.
[740]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1984. Peraturan pemeringkatan kayu keras gergaji Malaysia [The Malaysian grading rules for sawn hardwood timber]. Ministry of Primary Industries, Kuala Lumpur. 109 pp.
[741]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. x + 226 pp.
[770]Medway, Lord, 1972. Phenology of a tropical rain forest in Malaya. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 4(2): 117-146.
[785]Merrill, E.D., 1923-1926. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. 4 volumes. Bureau of Printing, Manila.
[800]Mohd Ghazali, H.O. & Abd. Rahim, A. S., 1985. Flowering-to-fruiting period of Malaysian forest trees. Malaysian Forester 48: 254-257.
[829]Ng, F.S.P., 1991-1992. Manual of forest fruits, seeds and seedlings. 2 volumes. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 997 pp.
[831]Ng, F.S.P. & Mat Asri Ngah Sanah, 1991. Germination and seedling records. Research Pamphlet No 108. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 191 pp.
[852]Normah, M.N. & Clyde, M., 1992. Genetic variability of Garcinia spp. In: Biologie de la reproduction et amélioration des plantes. Livre des résumés de posters. XIIIth EUCARPIA Congress, July 6-11, 1992, Angers - France. pp. 477-478.
[861]Oey Djoen Seng, 1951. De soortelijke gewichten van Indonesische houtsoorten en hun betekenis voor de praktijk [Specific gravity of Indonesian woods and its significance for practical use]. Rapport No 46. Bosbouwproefstation, Bogor. 183 pp.
[889]Phengklai, C. & Khamsai, S., 1985. Some non-timber species of Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany) 15: 108-148.
[934]Reyes, L.J., 1938. Philippine woods. Technical Bulletin No 7. Commonwealth of the Philippines, Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates.
[935]Richards, A.J., 1990. Studies in Garcinia, dioecious tropical forest trees: agamospermy. Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 103: 233-250.
[936]Richards, A.J., 1990. Studies in Garcinia, dioecious tropical forest trees: the phenology, pollination biology and fertilization of G. hombroniana Pierre. Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 103: 251-261.
[1023]Sjape'ie, I., 1954. Gewicht en volume van verschillende vrucht- en zaadsoorten [Weight and volume of various fruits and seeds]. Korte mededeling 20A. Bosbouwproefstation, Bogor. 10 pp.
[1032]Smith, A.C., 1941. Studies of Papuasian plants, III. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 22: 343-374.
[1038]Smitinand, T., 1980. Thai plant names. Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. 379 pp.
[1164]Verheij, E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Editors), 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen. 446 pp.
[1218]Whitmore, T.C., 1984. Tropical rainforest of the Far East. 2nd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. xvi + 352 pp.
[1221]Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 4 volumes. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur & Petaling Jaya.
[1239]Wong, T.M., 1976. Wood structure of the lesser known timbers of Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Forest Records No 28. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. xi + 115 pp.
[1242]Wong, T.M., 1982. A dictionary of Malaysian timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 30. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 259 pp.
[1248]Working group on utilization of tropical woods, 1978. Properties of some Papua New Guinea woods relating with manufacturing processes VI-IX. Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute Japan No 299: 23-187.
[1259]Yap, S.K., 1982. The phenology of some fruit tree species in a lowland dipterocarp forest. Malaysian Forester 45: 21-35.
[61]Ashton, P.S., 1988. Manual of the non-dipterocarp trees of Sarawak. Vol. 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. 490 pp.
[70]Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr., R.C., 1963-1968. Flora of Java. 3 volumes. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
[150]Brown, W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-1943 edition. 3 volumes. Technical Bulletin 10. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Vol. 1(1951) 590 pp., Vol. 2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol. 3 (1957) 507 pp.
[151]Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching, Sarawak. xviii + 369 pp.
[162]Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Sandakan. xviii + 501 pp.
[163]Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.
[193]Chudnoff, M., 1980. Tropical timbers of the world. Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Madison. 831 pp.
[209]Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd edition. 2 volumes. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. 774 pp.
[235]de Guzman, E.D., Umali, R.M. & Sotalbo, E.D., 1986. Guide to the Philippine flora and fauna. Vol. 3: Dipterocarps, non-dipterocarps. Natural Resources Management Centre, Ministry of Natural Resources, Quezon City & University of the Philippines, Los Baños. xx + 414 pp.
[259]den Berger, L.G., 1926. Mechanical properties of Dutch East Indian timbers. Korte Mededeelingen No 12. Proefstation voor het Boschwezen, Buitenzorg. viii + 63 pp.
[264]Department of Forestry, Fiji, 1967. Fiji timbers and their uses. No 17. The properties and potential uses of Laubu (Garcinia myrtifolia). Department of Forestry, Suva.
[267]Desch, H.E., 1941-1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp.
[300]Eddowes, P.J., 1977. Commercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses. Forest Products Research Centre, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby. xiv + 195 pp.
[304]Eddowes, P.J., 1995-1997. The forests and timbers of Papua New Guinea. (unpublished data).
[348]Forest Products Research Centre, 1967. Properties and uses of Papua and New Guinea timbers. Forest Products Research Centre, Port Moresby. 30 pp.
[396]Ha, C.O., Sands, V.E., Soepadmo, E. & Jong, K., 1988. Reproductive patterns of selected understorey trees in the Malaysian rain forest: the sexual species. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 97: 295-316.
[436]Heyne, K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlands-Indië [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd edition, 3 volumes. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch-Indië. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.).
[464]Ilic, J., 1990. The CSIRO macro key for hardwood identification. CSIRO, Highett. 125 pp.
[536]Keating, W.G. & Bolza, E., 1982. Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Vol. 1. South-East Asia, northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press Proprietary Ltd., Melbourne, Sydney & London. 362 pp.
[543]Keng, H., 1990. The concise flora of Singapore. Gymnosperms and dicotyledons. Singapore University Press, Singapore. 222 pp.
[595]Koorders, S.H. & Valeton, T., 1894-1915. Bijdrage tot de kennis der boomsoorten van Java [Contribution to the knowledge of the tree species of Java]. 13 parts. G. Kolff & Co., Batavia, 's-Gravenhage.
[628]Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1976. Notes on Clusiaceae of Sri Lanka and reduction of Pentaphalangium Warb. Ceylon Journal of Science, Biological Sciences n.s. 12: 55-72.
[657]Lamothe, L., Arentz, F. & Karimbaram, R., 1990. Germination of cassowary digested and manually defleshed fruit. Papua New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 35(1-4): 37-42.
[668]Lauterbach, C., 1922. Beiträge zur Flora von Papuasien IX. Die Guttiferen Papuasiens [Contributions to the flora of Papuasia IX. The Guttiferae of Papuasia]. Botanische Jahrbücher 58: 1-49.
[672]Lecomte, H., 1907-1950. Flore générale de l'Indo-Chine [General flora of Indo-China]. 7 vols & Supplément. Masson & Cie, Paris.
[694]Leighton, M. & Leighton, D.R., 1983. Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rain forest. In: Sutton, S.L., Whitmore, T.C. & Chadwick, A.C. (Editors): Tropical rain forest: ecology and management. Special publication number 2 of the British Ecological Society. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Boston, Melbourne. pp. 181-196.
[696]Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen. 195 pp.
[704]Lim, M., Hemapat, T., Wanachit, W. & Suwankiri, P., 1986. Collection of Lansium and Garcinia in southern Thailand. Newsletter 10(2): 10-12. IBPGR Regional Committee for Southeast Asia, Bangkok.
[713]Loke, S.Y., 1993. Ciri-ciri biji benih beberapa species Garcinia [Seed types of some Garcinia species]. Thesis Bachelor of Science, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 97 pp.
[740]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1984. Peraturan pemeringkatan kayu keras gergaji Malaysia [The Malaysian grading rules for sawn hardwood timber]. Ministry of Primary Industries, Kuala Lumpur. 109 pp.
[741]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. x + 226 pp.
[770]Medway, Lord, 1972. Phenology of a tropical rain forest in Malaya. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 4(2): 117-146.
[785]Merrill, E.D., 1923-1926. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. 4 volumes. Bureau of Printing, Manila.
[800]Mohd Ghazali, H.O. & Abd. Rahim, A. S., 1985. Flowering-to-fruiting period of Malaysian forest trees. Malaysian Forester 48: 254-257.
[829]Ng, F.S.P., 1991-1992. Manual of forest fruits, seeds and seedlings. 2 volumes. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 997 pp.
[831]Ng, F.S.P. & Mat Asri Ngah Sanah, 1991. Germination and seedling records. Research Pamphlet No 108. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 191 pp.
[852]Normah, M.N. & Clyde, M., 1992. Genetic variability of Garcinia spp. In: Biologie de la reproduction et amélioration des plantes. Livre des résumés de posters. XIIIth EUCARPIA Congress, July 6-11, 1992, Angers - France. pp. 477-478.
[861]Oey Djoen Seng, 1951. De soortelijke gewichten van Indonesische houtsoorten en hun betekenis voor de praktijk [Specific gravity of Indonesian woods and its significance for practical use]. Rapport No 46. Bosbouwproefstation, Bogor. 183 pp.
[889]Phengklai, C. & Khamsai, S., 1985. Some non-timber species of Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany) 15: 108-148.
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Author(s)
Normah Mohd. Noor
Garcinia archboldiana
Garcinia bancana
Garcinia beccarii
Garcinia binucao
Garcinia brevirostris
Garcinia celebica
Garcinia cornea
Garcinia cowa
Garcinia dulcis
Garcinia engleriana
Garcinia hombroniana
Garcinia hunsteinii
Garcinia idenburgensis
Garcinia ituman
Garcinia latissima
Garcinia macrophylla
Garcinia maingayi
Garcinia malaccensis
Garcinia mangostana
Garcinia nervosa
Garcinia nigrolineata
Garcinia pachycarpum
Garcinia parvifolia
Garcinia petiolaris
Garcinia picrorrhiza
Garcinia salakensis
Garcinia schraderi
Garcinia venulosa
Garcinia warburgiana
Garcinia bancana
Garcinia beccarii
Garcinia binucao
Garcinia brevirostris
Garcinia celebica
Garcinia cornea
Garcinia cowa
Garcinia dulcis
Garcinia engleriana
Garcinia hombroniana
Garcinia hunsteinii
Garcinia idenburgensis
Garcinia ituman
Garcinia latissima
Garcinia macrophylla
Garcinia maingayi
Garcinia malaccensis
Garcinia mangostana
Garcinia nervosa
Garcinia nigrolineata
Garcinia pachycarpum
Garcinia parvifolia
Garcinia petiolaris
Garcinia picrorrhiza
Garcinia salakensis
Garcinia schraderi
Garcinia venulosa
Garcinia warburgiana
Correct Citation of this Article
Mohd. Noor, N., 1998. Garcinia L.. In: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. and Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3): Timber trees; Lesser-known timbers. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea
Selection of Species
The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Garcinia archboldiana
Garcinia bancana
Garcinia beccarii
Garcinia binucao
Garcinia brevirostris
Garcinia celebica
Garcinia cornea
Garcinia cowa
Garcinia dulcis
Garcinia engleriana
Garcinia hombroniana
Garcinia hunsteinii
Garcinia idenburgensis
Garcinia ituman
Garcinia latissima
Garcinia macrophylla
Garcinia maingayi
Garcinia malaccensis
Garcinia mangostana
Garcinia nervosa
Garcinia nigrolineata
Garcinia pachycarpum
Garcinia parvifolia
Garcinia petiolaris
Garcinia picrorrhiza
Garcinia salakensis
Garcinia schraderi
Garcinia venulosa
Garcinia warburgiana
Garcinia archboldiana
Garcinia bancana
Garcinia beccarii
Garcinia binucao
Garcinia brevirostris
Garcinia celebica
Garcinia cornea
Garcinia cowa
Garcinia dulcis
Garcinia engleriana
Garcinia hombroniana
Garcinia hunsteinii
Garcinia idenburgensis
Garcinia ituman
Garcinia latissima
Garcinia macrophylla
Garcinia maingayi
Garcinia malaccensis
Garcinia mangostana
Garcinia nervosa
Garcinia nigrolineata
Garcinia pachycarpum
Garcinia parvifolia
Garcinia petiolaris
Garcinia picrorrhiza
Garcinia salakensis
Garcinia schraderi
Garcinia venulosa
Garcinia warburgiana
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