Record Number
5747
PROSEA Handbook Number
5(3): Timber trees; Lesser-known timbers
Taxon
Macaranga Thouars
Protologue
Gen. Nov. Madag.: 26 (1806).
Family
EUPHORBIACEAE
Chromosome Numbers
x = 11; M. denticulata (Blume) Müll. Arg., M. indica, M. peltata (Roxb.) Müll. Arg., M. tanarius: n = 11
Vernacular Names
Mahang (trade name). Macaranga (En). Brunei: marakubong, sedaman. Indonesia: mahang kapur (general). Malaysia: benua (Sarawak), marakubong (Sabah). Papua New Guinea: macaranga (En). Philippines: hamindang (Filipino). Burma (Myanmar): petwaing. Thailand: lo.
Origin and Geographic Distribution
Macaranga comprises some 250 species. About 30 of these occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar, the rest in tropical Asia from India to Indo-China, China, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, Thailand, throughout the Malesian region, northern Australia and the Pacific, east to Fiji. The main centre of diversity is found within Malesia where some 160 species occur, with an exceptionally high number of endemics in Borneo and New Guinea.
Uses
Peeled Macaranga poles are frequently used for temporary construction and especially for parts of native houses not in contact with the ground. The wood is used for light framing, interior trim, moulding, shingles, packing cases, outriggers for canoes and, especially, match splints. In the Philippines it has been a favourite wood for wooden shoes. M. indica has been used to support pepper vines. Poles of M. tanarius have been used by pepper growers in southern Sumatra to make temporary ladders to harvest their crop. Macaranga yields a high-quality pulp and produces high-quality particle board, cement-bonded board and wood-wool board, and is suitable for the production of plywood. It provides good fuelwood.
The bark and pith or the fruit of several species produce a resin or gum called "kino"" or "selaru"" that can be used as a glue. The bark of some species has been used to tan fishing nets and in Papua New Guinea as twine for hut construction. Certain species are the most common hosts of the lac insect; production, however, is negligible. A decoction of the leaves or roots of various species is used as an internal medicine. In Malaysia a decoction of the root-bark of various species is drunk to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, used to clean wounds and applied after childbirth. Large leaves of M. gigantea and M. mappa are used to wrap food, etc.
The bark and pith or the fruit of several species produce a resin or gum called "kino"" or "selaru"" that can be used as a glue. The bark of some species has been used to tan fishing nets and in Papua New Guinea as twine for hut construction. Certain species are the most common hosts of the lac insect; production, however, is negligible. A decoction of the leaves or roots of various species is used as an internal medicine. In Malaysia a decoction of the root-bark of various species is drunk to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, used to clean wounds and applied after childbirth. Large leaves of M. gigantea and M. mappa are used to wrap food, etc.
Production and International Trade
Macaranga is regarded as a commercial timber in Indonesia, but little is traded separately. When traded it is found in mixed consignments of lightweight hardwood. In 1996 Papua New Guinea exported 219 m3 of Macaranga logs at an average free-on-board (FOB) price of US$ 98/m3.
Properties
Macaranga yields a lightweight hardwood with a density of 270-500(-590) kg/m3 at 15% moisture content, but for M. involucrata densities of over 830 kg/m3 and for M. lowii of 800-815 kg/m3 are reported. Heartwood pale yellow-brown to pale brown or grey-brown, sometimes with a pinkish tinge, not clearly differentiated from the sapwood; grain straight or slightly interlocked; texture moderately fine to moderately coarse and even; planed surfaces lustrous. Growth rings sometimes apparent; vessels moderately small to medium-sized, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-4(-6), tyloses few; parenchyma moderately abundant, apotracheal in narrow bands, visible with a hand lens, occasionally tending to diffuse or diffuse-in-aggregates; rays very fine, visible with a hand lens; ripple marks absent.
Shrinkage is moderate and in seasoning the wood is liable to sap-stain and is subject to insect attack. The wood is soft to moderately hard and fairly weak. It is very easy to work but somewhat fibrous. The wood is non-durable and permeable to pressure treatment. It is moderately resistant to susceptible to dry-wood termites, the sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus.
The medicinal properties are probably due to the tannin.
See also the tables on microscopic wood anatomy and wood properties.
Shrinkage is moderate and in seasoning the wood is liable to sap-stain and is subject to insect attack. The wood is soft to moderately hard and fairly weak. It is very easy to work but somewhat fibrous. The wood is non-durable and permeable to pressure treatment. It is moderately resistant to susceptible to dry-wood termites, the sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus.
The medicinal properties are probably due to the tannin.
See also the tables on microscopic wood anatomy and wood properties.
Botany
Evergreen, dioecious, small to medium-sized trees up to 30(-40) m tall; bole straight, up to 50(-70) cm in diameter, occasionally with stilt roots, rarely with buttresses; bark surface smooth or rough with lenticels, hoop-marked, stripping off easily, greyish or pinkish, inner bark pink to reddish-brown, sometimes exuding a colourless, pink or red-brown gum; crown open, often bluish-green. Leaves arranged spirally, simple, palmately or pinnately veined, the main veins joined by parallel, concentric veinlets giving the effect of spider-webbing, often prominently lobed, sometimes peltate; petiole often long and kneed; stipules often large and persistent. Flowers small, in a short, lateral raceme of small clusters subtended by often glandular bracteoles; petals absent; disk absent. Male flower with 2-5-lobed calyx, lobes valvate; stamens 1-20; anthers 3-4-celled; pistillode absent. Female flower with 3-5-lobed calyx; ovary superior, (1-)2-3(-6)-locular with 1 ovule in each cell, styles usually free and unlobed. Fruit a leathery or woody, often shouldered capsule, smooth to variously spiny, splitting into 2-valved parts leaving the central, commonly waxy column. Seed black, often with a thin orange to red aril. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated; all leaves arranged spirally, conduplicate to involute.
Macaranga species are short-lived pioneers becoming 15-20 years old. Most species develop according to Rauh's architectural model, characterized by a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth and so developing tiers of branches that are themselves morphogenetically identical with the trunk. M. conifera, however, develops according to the Koriba's architectural model which is characterized by orthotropic axes which branch to produce initially equivalent modules but subsequently one of these becomes dominant constituting one unit of the sympodial trunk. Trees may flower when very young. Flowering and fruiting are fairly regular, several times a year. A few Macaranga species are either facultative or obligate myrmecophytes. The latter group of species provides specific nesting space, mainly hollow twigs, for ants of the genus Crematogaster. The ants protect the plants from herbivores.
The dimorphism of sapling leaves and those of mature trees renders identification difficult. Macaranga is very closely related to Mallotus, but differs in its 3-4-celled anthers and more conspicuously in its lateral inflorescences and the absence of stellate hairs.
Macaranga species are short-lived pioneers becoming 15-20 years old. Most species develop according to Rauh's architectural model, characterized by a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth and so developing tiers of branches that are themselves morphogenetically identical with the trunk. M. conifera, however, develops according to the Koriba's architectural model which is characterized by orthotropic axes which branch to produce initially equivalent modules but subsequently one of these becomes dominant constituting one unit of the sympodial trunk. Trees may flower when very young. Flowering and fruiting are fairly regular, several times a year. A few Macaranga species are either facultative or obligate myrmecophytes. The latter group of species provides specific nesting space, mainly hollow twigs, for ants of the genus Crematogaster. The ants protect the plants from herbivores.
The dimorphism of sapling leaves and those of mature trees renders identification difficult. Macaranga is very closely related to Mallotus, but differs in its 3-4-celled anthers and more conspicuously in its lateral inflorescences and the absence of stellate hairs.
Ecology
Most Macaranga species are pioneers and form a characteristic element of secondary forest especially along roadsides in western Malesia and New Guinea, but are less common in Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Java. They are often found gregariously and may locally form pure stands. A few species (section Pseudorottlera (Rchb. f. & Zoll.) Pax & K. Hoffm.) are found in primary forest. Most species thrive in a perhumid climate, some also under slightly seasonal conditions. The altitudinal range is large, with a few species occurring up to almost 3000 m altitude in New Guinea. Some species may occur along rivers and streams, in secondary seasonal swamp forest (e.g. M. recurvata), secondary peat-swamp forest (e.g. M. pruinosa), and on a wide variety of soil types including sandy, tufa, and clayey soils and limestone.
Silviculture and Management
Macaranga can be propagated by seed. For M. tanarius there are about 54 500 dry seeds/kg. Seeds of M. tanarius sown with adhering pulp have about 50% germination in 24-72(-265) days, whereas those of M. triloba have about 80% germination in 19-37 days. It is, however, difficult to get seedlings to grow. Most of the trees are very fast-growing pioneers but as they are small and low-branching, they are not interesting for the production of sawn timber. M. tanarius has been suggested as a shade and shelter tree to promote natural regeneration on deforested land. A few species reach 50 cm in diameter, e.g. M. hypoleuca.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
Some species are narrow endemics, but the genetic resources of most Macaranga species are not in danger as trees are common and characteristic elements of secondary vegetation.
Prospects
The fairly general occurrence of Macaranga and the long wood fibres make the exploitation for pulp and paper and the production of wood-based panels promising in the near future.
Literature
[26]Airy Shaw, H.K., 1972. The Euphorbiaceae of Siam. Kew Bulletin 26: 191-363.
[33]Airy Shaw, H.K., 1981. An alphabetical enumeration of the Euphorbiaceae of the Philippine islands. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 56 pp.
[36]Airy Shaw, H.K., 1983. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bulletin 37: 1-40.
[70]Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr., R.C., 1963-1968. Flora of Java. 3 volumes. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
[82]Balan Menon, P.K., 1986. Uses of some Malaysian timbers. (revised edition by S.C. Lim). Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 31. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 48 pp.
[83]Balan Menon, P.K., 1988. Malaysian timbers - equivalent woods. Timber Trade Leaflet No 32. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 59 pp.
[151]Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching, Sarawak. xviii + 369 pp.
[162]Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Sandakan. xviii + 501 pp.
[163]Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.
[209]Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd edition. 2 volumes. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. 774 pp.
[260]den Berger, L.G., 1926. Houtsoorten der cultuurgebieden van Java en Sumatra's oostkust [Tree species of the cultivated areas of Java and the east coast of Sumatra]. Mededeelingen No 13. Proefstation voor het Boschwezen, Buitenzorg. 186 pp.
[267]Desch, H.E., 1941-1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp.
[300]Eddowes, P.J., 1977. Commercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses. Forest Products Research Centre, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby. xiv + 195 pp.
[337]Fiala, B., Grunsky, H., Maschwitz, U. & Linsenmair, K.E., 1994. Diversity of ant-plant interactions: Protective efficacy in Macaranga species with different degree of ant association. Oecologia (Heidelberg) 97: 186-192.
[348]Forest Products Research Centre, 1967. Properties and uses of Papua and New Guinea timbers. Forest Products Research Centre, Port Moresby. 30 pp.
[402]Hallé, F., Oldeman, R.A.A. & Tomlinson, P.B., 1978. Tropical trees and forests - an architectural analysis. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 441 pp.
[405]Hardjowasono, M.S., 1942. Gewicht en volume van verschillende vrucht- en zaadsoorten [Weight and volume of various fruits and seeds]. Korte Mededelingen No 20. Bosbouwproefstation, Buitenzorg. 172 pp.
[428]Helmer, T., 1991. Elastomechanical properties of the pioneer species Macaranga gigantifolia and M. hypoleuca. M.A. Research Report 12, Malaysian-German Forestry Research Project, Sabah. 57 pp.
[429]Helmer, T., 1993. Die Eigenschaften von Macaranga gigantifolia (Merr.) und Macaranga hypoleuca (Reich. f. und Zoll.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) und ihre Verwendungsmöglichkeiten [The properties of Macaranga gigantifolia (Merr.) and Macaranga hypoleuca (Reich. f. and Zoll.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) and their potential uses]. University of Hamburg, Fachbereich Biologie, Hamburg. 189 pp.
[436]Heyne, K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlands-Indië [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd edition, 3 volumes. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch-Indië. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.).
[526]Kartasujana, I. & Martawijaya, A., 1979. Kayu perdagangan Indonesia - sifat dan kegunaannya [Commercial woods of Indonesia - their properties and uses]. Lembaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan, Bogor. 28 pp.
[543]Keng, H., 1990. The concise flora of Singapore. Gymnosperms and dicotyledons. Singapore University Press, Singapore. 222 pp.
[565]Killmann, W., 1990. Research note on some physical and mechanical properties of Macaranga hosei. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 3: 195-196.
[678]Lee, Y.H., Engku Abdul Rahman bin Chik & Chu, Y.P., 1979. The strength properties of some Malaysian timbers. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 34 (revised edition). Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 107 pp.
[740]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1984. Peraturan pemeringkatan kayu keras gergaji Malaysia [The Malaysian grading rules for sawn hardwood timber]. Ministry of Primary Industries, Kuala Lumpur. 109 pp.
[741]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. x + 226 pp.
[745]Mandang, Y.I., 1991. Anatomi dan identifikasi 21 jenis kayu kurang dikenal [Anatomy and identification of 21 lesser-known timber species]. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan 9(1): 5-23.
[780]Meniado, J.A. et al., 1975-1981. Wood identification handbook for Philippine timbers. 2 volumes. Government Printing Office, Manila. 370 pp. & 186 pp.
[829]Ng, F.S.P., 1991-1992. Manual of forest fruits, seeds and seedlings. 2 volumes. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 997 pp.
[831]Ng, F.S.P. & Mat Asri Ngah Sanah, 1991. Germination and seedling records. Research Pamphlet No 108. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 191 pp.
[861]Oey Djoen Seng, 1951. De soortelijke gewichten van Indonesische houtsoorten en hun betekenis voor de praktijk [Specific gravity of Indonesian woods and its significance for practical use]. Rapport No 46. Bosbouwproefstation, Bogor. 183 pp.
[934]Reyes, L.J., 1938. Philippine woods. Technical Bulletin No 7. Commonwealth of the Philippines, Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates.
[955]Rocafort, J.E., Floresca, A.R. & Siopongco, J.O., 1971. Fourth progress report on the specific gravity of Philippine woods. Philippine Architecture, Engineering & Construction Report 18(5): 17-27.
[966]Rudjiman & Okimori, Y., 1996. Botanical characteristics of some pioneer species at Sylva Gama forest concession, Jambi, with particular reference to the genus Macaranga. Proceedings seminar on ecology and reforestation of dipterocarp forest, Yogyakarta, January 24–25, 1996.
[974]Salvosa, F.M., 1963. Lexicon of Philippine trees. Bulletin No 1. Forest Products Research Institute, College, Laguna. 136 pp.
[1038]Smitinand, T., 1980. Thai plant names. Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. 379 pp.
[1169]Vidal, J., 1962. Noms vernaculaires de plantes en usage au Laos [Vernacular names of plants used in Laos]. Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Paris. 197 pp.
[1195]Webster, G.L., 1994. Synopsis of the genera and suprageneric taxa of Euphorbiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 81: 33-144.
[1211]Whitmore, T.C., 1975. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of Borneo. Kew Bulletin Additional Series VIII. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. pp. 140-159.
[1215]Whitmore, T.C., 1979. Studies in Macaranga, X - Potentially commercial species in New Guinea. The Commonwealth Forestry Review 58: 271-272.
[1216]Whitmore, T.C., 1980. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of New Guinea. Kew Bulletin Additional Series VIII. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. pp. 123-162.
[1217]Whitmore, T.C., 1981. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bulletin 36: 239-374.
[1218]Whitmore, T.C., 1984. Tropical rainforest of the Far East. 2nd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. xvi + 352 pp.
[1221]Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 4 volumes. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur & Petaling Jaya.
[1239]Wong, T.M., 1976. Wood structure of the lesser known timbers of Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Forest Records No 28. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. xi + 115 pp.
[1242]Wong, T.M., 1982. A dictionary of Malaysian timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 30. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 259 pp.
[1251]Wyatt-Smith, J. & Kochummen, K.M., 1979. Pocket checklist of timber trees, 3rd edition. Malayan Forest Records No 17. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 362 pp.
[33]Airy Shaw, H.K., 1981. An alphabetical enumeration of the Euphorbiaceae of the Philippine islands. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 56 pp.
[36]Airy Shaw, H.K., 1983. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bulletin 37: 1-40.
[70]Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr., R.C., 1963-1968. Flora of Java. 3 volumes. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
[82]Balan Menon, P.K., 1986. Uses of some Malaysian timbers. (revised edition by S.C. Lim). Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 31. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 48 pp.
[83]Balan Menon, P.K., 1988. Malaysian timbers - equivalent woods. Timber Trade Leaflet No 32. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 59 pp.
[151]Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching, Sarawak. xviii + 369 pp.
[162]Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Sandakan. xviii + 501 pp.
[163]Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.
[209]Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd edition. 2 volumes. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. 774 pp.
[260]den Berger, L.G., 1926. Houtsoorten der cultuurgebieden van Java en Sumatra's oostkust [Tree species of the cultivated areas of Java and the east coast of Sumatra]. Mededeelingen No 13. Proefstation voor het Boschwezen, Buitenzorg. 186 pp.
[267]Desch, H.E., 1941-1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp.
[300]Eddowes, P.J., 1977. Commercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses. Forest Products Research Centre, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby. xiv + 195 pp.
[337]Fiala, B., Grunsky, H., Maschwitz, U. & Linsenmair, K.E., 1994. Diversity of ant-plant interactions: Protective efficacy in Macaranga species with different degree of ant association. Oecologia (Heidelberg) 97: 186-192.
[348]Forest Products Research Centre, 1967. Properties and uses of Papua and New Guinea timbers. Forest Products Research Centre, Port Moresby. 30 pp.
[402]Hallé, F., Oldeman, R.A.A. & Tomlinson, P.B., 1978. Tropical trees and forests - an architectural analysis. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 441 pp.
[405]Hardjowasono, M.S., 1942. Gewicht en volume van verschillende vrucht- en zaadsoorten [Weight and volume of various fruits and seeds]. Korte Mededelingen No 20. Bosbouwproefstation, Buitenzorg. 172 pp.
[428]Helmer, T., 1991. Elastomechanical properties of the pioneer species Macaranga gigantifolia and M. hypoleuca. M.A. Research Report 12, Malaysian-German Forestry Research Project, Sabah. 57 pp.
[429]Helmer, T., 1993. Die Eigenschaften von Macaranga gigantifolia (Merr.) und Macaranga hypoleuca (Reich. f. und Zoll.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) und ihre Verwendungsmöglichkeiten [The properties of Macaranga gigantifolia (Merr.) and Macaranga hypoleuca (Reich. f. and Zoll.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) and their potential uses]. University of Hamburg, Fachbereich Biologie, Hamburg. 189 pp.
[436]Heyne, K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlands-Indië [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd edition, 3 volumes. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch-Indië. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.).
[526]Kartasujana, I. & Martawijaya, A., 1979. Kayu perdagangan Indonesia - sifat dan kegunaannya [Commercial woods of Indonesia - their properties and uses]. Lembaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan, Bogor. 28 pp.
[543]Keng, H., 1990. The concise flora of Singapore. Gymnosperms and dicotyledons. Singapore University Press, Singapore. 222 pp.
[565]Killmann, W., 1990. Research note on some physical and mechanical properties of Macaranga hosei. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 3: 195-196.
[678]Lee, Y.H., Engku Abdul Rahman bin Chik & Chu, Y.P., 1979. The strength properties of some Malaysian timbers. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 34 (revised edition). Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 107 pp.
[740]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1984. Peraturan pemeringkatan kayu keras gergaji Malaysia [The Malaysian grading rules for sawn hardwood timber]. Ministry of Primary Industries, Kuala Lumpur. 109 pp.
[741]Malaysian Timber Industry Board, 1986. 100 Malaysian timbers. Kuala Lumpur. x + 226 pp.
[745]Mandang, Y.I., 1991. Anatomi dan identifikasi 21 jenis kayu kurang dikenal [Anatomy and identification of 21 lesser-known timber species]. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan 9(1): 5-23.
[780]Meniado, J.A. et al., 1975-1981. Wood identification handbook for Philippine timbers. 2 volumes. Government Printing Office, Manila. 370 pp. & 186 pp.
[829]Ng, F.S.P., 1991-1992. Manual of forest fruits, seeds and seedlings. 2 volumes. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 997 pp.
[831]Ng, F.S.P. & Mat Asri Ngah Sanah, 1991. Germination and seedling records. Research Pamphlet No 108. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 191 pp.
[861]Oey Djoen Seng, 1951. De soortelijke gewichten van Indonesische houtsoorten en hun betekenis voor de praktijk [Specific gravity of Indonesian woods and its significance for practical use]. Rapport No 46. Bosbouwproefstation, Bogor. 183 pp.
[934]Reyes, L.J., 1938. Philippine woods. Technical Bulletin No 7. Commonwealth of the Philippines, Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates.
[955]Rocafort, J.E., Floresca, A.R. & Siopongco, J.O., 1971. Fourth progress report on the specific gravity of Philippine woods. Philippine Architecture, Engineering & Construction Report 18(5): 17-27.
[966]Rudjiman & Okimori, Y., 1996. Botanical characteristics of some pioneer species at Sylva Gama forest concession, Jambi, with particular reference to the genus Macaranga. Proceedings seminar on ecology and reforestation of dipterocarp forest, Yogyakarta, January 24–25, 1996.
[974]Salvosa, F.M., 1963. Lexicon of Philippine trees. Bulletin No 1. Forest Products Research Institute, College, Laguna. 136 pp.
[1038]Smitinand, T., 1980. Thai plant names. Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. 379 pp.
[1169]Vidal, J., 1962. Noms vernaculaires de plantes en usage au Laos [Vernacular names of plants used in Laos]. Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Paris. 197 pp.
[1195]Webster, G.L., 1994. Synopsis of the genera and suprageneric taxa of Euphorbiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 81: 33-144.
[1211]Whitmore, T.C., 1975. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of Borneo. Kew Bulletin Additional Series VIII. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. pp. 140-159.
[1215]Whitmore, T.C., 1979. Studies in Macaranga, X - Potentially commercial species in New Guinea. The Commonwealth Forestry Review 58: 271-272.
[1216]Whitmore, T.C., 1980. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of New Guinea. Kew Bulletin Additional Series VIII. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. pp. 123-162.
[1217]Whitmore, T.C., 1981. Macaranga Thou. In: Airy Shaw, H.K.: The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bulletin 36: 239-374.
[1218]Whitmore, T.C., 1984. Tropical rainforest of the Far East. 2nd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. xvi + 352 pp.
[1221]Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 4 volumes. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur & Petaling Jaya.
[1239]Wong, T.M., 1976. Wood structure of the lesser known timbers of Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Forest Records No 28. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. xi + 115 pp.
[1242]Wong, T.M., 1982. A dictionary of Malaysian timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 30. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 259 pp.
[1251]Wyatt-Smith, J. & Kochummen, K.M., 1979. Pocket checklist of timber trees, 3rd edition. Malayan Forest Records No 17. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 362 pp.
Author(s)
S.C. Lim
Macaranga albescens
Macaranga aleuritoides
Macaranga amissa
Macaranga bicolor
Macaranga brunneofloccosa
Macaranga conifera
Macaranga denticulata
Macaranga diepenhorstii
Macaranga gigantea
Macaranga glaberrima
Macaranga hispida
Macaranga hosei
Macaranga hypoleuca
Macaranga indica
Macaranga involucrata
Macaranga kingii
Macaranga lowii
Macaranga mappa
Macaranga motleyana
Macaranga pruinosa
Macaranga recurvata
Macaranga rhizinoides
Macaranga tanarius
Macaranga triloba
Macaranga aleuritoides
Macaranga amissa
Macaranga bicolor
Macaranga brunneofloccosa
Macaranga conifera
Macaranga denticulata
Macaranga diepenhorstii
Macaranga gigantea
Macaranga glaberrima
Macaranga hispida
Macaranga hosei
Macaranga hypoleuca
Macaranga indica
Macaranga involucrata
Macaranga kingii
Macaranga lowii
Macaranga mappa
Macaranga motleyana
Macaranga pruinosa
Macaranga recurvata
Macaranga rhizinoides
Macaranga tanarius
Macaranga triloba
Correct Citation of this Article
Lim, S.C., 1998. Macaranga Thouars. In: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. and Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3): Timber trees; Lesser-known timbers. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea
Selection of Species
The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Macaranga albescens
Macaranga aleuritoides
Macaranga amissa
Macaranga bicolor
Macaranga brunneofloccosa
Macaranga conifera
Macaranga denticulata
Macaranga diepenhorstii
Macaranga gigantea
Macaranga glaberrima
Macaranga hispida
Macaranga hosei
Macaranga hypoleuca
Macaranga indica
Macaranga involucrata
Macaranga kingii
Macaranga lowii
Macaranga mappa
Macaranga motleyana
Macaranga pruinosa
Macaranga recurvata
Macaranga rhizinoides
Macaranga tanarius
Macaranga triloba
Macaranga albescens
Macaranga aleuritoides
Macaranga amissa
Macaranga bicolor
Macaranga brunneofloccosa
Macaranga conifera
Macaranga denticulata
Macaranga diepenhorstii
Macaranga gigantea
Macaranga glaberrima
Macaranga hispida
Macaranga hosei
Macaranga hypoleuca
Macaranga indica
Macaranga involucrata
Macaranga kingii
Macaranga lowii
Macaranga mappa
Macaranga motleyana
Macaranga pruinosa
Macaranga recurvata
Macaranga rhizinoides
Macaranga tanarius
Macaranga triloba
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