Record Number
963
PROSEA Handbook Number
12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2
Taxon
Caesalpinia L.
Protologue
Sp. pl. 1: 380 (1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 178 (1754)('Caesalpina').
Family
LEGUMINOSAE
Chromosome Numbers
x = 11, 12, 14; Caesalpinia coriaria, Caesalpinia crista, Caesalpinia sappan: 2n = 24; Caesalpinia decapetala: 2n = 22, 24; Caesalpinia pulcherrima: 2n = 24, 28
Major Taxa and Synonyms
Major species Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Caesalpinia sappan L.
Origin and Geographic Distribution
Caesalpinia comprises about 100 species and is pantropical. There are 18 species indigenous in Malesia, and 1 species indigenous in the Solomon Islands (Caesalpinia solomonensis Hattink). Three species have been introduced in South-East Asia and are now widespread (Caesalpinia coriaria, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Caesalpinia sappan) and 2 are occasionally cultivated (Caesalpinia spicara Dalz., Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze).
Uses
The traditional medicinal uses of Caesalpinia species vary considerably. In general, various plant parts of numerous species are used as a tonic, anthelmintic, antipyretic and for their astringent properties; some are used as emmenagogue.
A decoction of the leaves of Caesalpinia latisiliqua (Cav.) Hattink (synonym Mezoneuron latisiliquum (Cav.) Merr.) is given for relief of asthma in the Philippines. In Vietnamese folk medicine, the roots and leaves of Caesalpinia minax Hance are considered analgesic and sedative, and prescribed for insomnia, various pains, and also used as a gargle for toothache.
A decoction of the leaves of Caesalpinia latisiliqua (Cav.) Hattink (synonym Mezoneuron latisiliquum (Cav.) Merr.) is given for relief of asthma in the Philippines. In Vietnamese folk medicine, the roots and leaves of Caesalpinia minax Hance are considered analgesic and sedative, and prescribed for insomnia, various pains, and also used as a gargle for toothache.
Production and International Trade
Caesalpinia products are primarily traded in local markets. Statistics on international trade are not available.
Properties
The effects of a leaf extract of Caesalpinia bonduc on calcium metabolism and cholinergic receptors were studied on isolated pregnant rat myometrium preparations. The effects were comparable to those obtained with acetylcholine. Isometric contractions were recorded, and the contractile force in the isolated strips increased with the concentration of the extract. Further pharmacological experiments suggest the existence of cholinergic receptors sensitive to the extract (constituents), which could influence the influx of calcium (phasic contraction) and mobilization of calcium from cellular stores (tonic contraction). Both of these are responsible for the increase of contractile activity and development of the contraction of uterine smooth muscle.
Hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidaemic activities of the aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of Caesalpinia bonduc seeds were studied in normal and streptozotocin-diabetic rats. In normal rats, both extracts exhibited hypoglycaemic activity as early as 4 hours after administration of a dose of 100 mg/kg. The hypoglycaemia produced by the aqueous extract was of prolonged duration when compared to the hydro-ethanolic extract. In diabetic rats, both extracts produced a significant antihyperglycaemic effect from day 5 onwards. The aqueous extract also exhibited antihypercholesterolemic and antihypertriglyceridemic effects in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. An isoflavonoid bonducellin and several diterpenes, including bonducellpin, bonducin, caesaldekarin, caesalpin, caesalpinin, were isolated.
Seed of Caesalpinia coriaria yield 9.1% of a fixed oil, containing 4.9% cyclopropenoid fatty acids, which have known co-carcinogenic properties. Oven-dried fruits of Caesalpinia coriaria at 2500 ppm were 100% effective in controlling the snails Lymnaea luteola and Gyraulus convexiusculus within 24—72 h. Methanolic herbal extracts showed algicidal activity when tested in ponds: precipitation of algal proteins due to hydrolysable and condensed tannins may be involved.
A 50 mg/kg dose of Caesalpinia crista seed powder, its equivalent of a methanolic extract, or piperazine (200 mg/kg) were found equally effective in treating ascarid infection in poultry. The crudes eed powder appears to be more potent and safer than its methanol extract on the basis of the side effects observed. A single oral dose of powdered Caesalpinia crista seeds (4 g/kg body weight) reduced faecal egg counts in buffalo calves naturally infected with Neoascaris vitulorum by 91% after 10 days and 100% after 15 days, without adverse effects.
The sterol mixture from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan (campesterol 11.2%, stigmasterol 18.9% and 'BETA'-sitosterol 69.9%), and some further isolated compounds (e.g. brazilin, brazilein and protosappanin E) showed a strong anticomplementary activity in vitro. Of the latter, the pharmacological effects of the phenolic compound (catechol derivative) brazilin ((6aS-cis)-7,11b-dihydobenz[b]indeno[1,2-d]pyran-3,6a,9,10(6H)-tetrol) were studied in more detail.
Based on the fact that immunomodulation during the initial stage of autoimmune diseases is an effective wau of preventing or controling these diseases, the effects of brazilin on the altered immune functions in the early phase of halothane intoxication of C57BL/6 mice were investigated. Treatment of halothane-caused hepatitis by an autoimmune-mediated process, and significantly increased the delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH)response, and mitogen (ConA, LPS)induced proliferation of splenocytes, while suppressor cell activity and mixed lymphocyte reaction were decreased, and IgM plaque forming cell titers (PFCs) were not significantly changed. Upon treatment with brazilin, all these parameters tested were changed to normal, although brazilin also significantly increased IgM PFCs to a higher than normal level. At the cellular level (e.g. T cells), brazilin decreased splenic cellularity and IL-2 production which had been augmented in mice treated with halothane for 4 consecutive days, whereas the reduced expression of IL-2 receptors by ConA or standard IL-2 was increased by this compound.
Brazilin was found to have a hypoglycaemic action and increase glucose metabolism in experimental diabetic animals. In order to investigate the mechanism of the hypoglycaemic action, its effects on glucose transport, insulin receptor autophosphorylation, and protein kinase C(PKC) activity in 3T3-L1 cells were studied. Brazilin increased basal glucose transport in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes, although insulin-stimulated glucose transport was not influenced. Autophosphorylation of the partially purified insulin receptor was not affected by brazilin treatment in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts, but the compound decreased PKC activity in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes. The hypothesis that brazilin might require Ca2+ for its glucose transport-stimulating action was also investigated by the use of calcium modulators such as nifedipine, verampamil and A23187. From these experiments it was suggested that calmodulin and the maintenance of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration, rather than an increase in it, may be essential for the stimulatory action of brazilin on glucose transport.
Other pharmacological effects of extracts of Caesalpinia sappan include antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus 209P, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Shigella dysenteriae and Bacillus subtilis of a decoction of the wood. A Caesalpinia sappan extract was found to be a potent agent for inactivating human sperm in vitro. Exposure of sperm from healthy donors to this agent showed remarkably reduced sperm motility. The antimotility effect of Caesalpinia sappan is concentration-dependent and about 2.5 mg/ml is required to reduce motility to 50% of that of the control medium (EC50).
The ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Caesalpinia decapetala administered orally on days 1—8 post-coitum at 500 mg/kg dose exhibited significant contraceptive activity in female hamsters, but was devoid of any oestrogenic activity. On fractionation, the activity was found to be localized in the butanol and aqueous fractions. Caesaljapin, a cassane triterpenoid isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia decapetala showed inhibitory activity against the anaphylactic contraction in taenia coli of guinea-pigs sensitized by anti-egg albumin rabbit IgE.
Water extracts of Caesalpinia digyna leaves demonstrated antifungal activity against Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton simii, Trichosporon beigelii, Microsporum fulvum and Microsporum gypseum.
Several cassane-type furanoditerpenes, called caesaldekarins have been isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia major; caesaldekarin A inhibited mitogen responses of mouse spleen cells and interleukin-1 production. Pulcherrimins A and B (diterpene dibenzoates), as well as cassane-type furanoditerpenes, isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia pulcherrima, were active against the DNA repair-deficient mutant of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Lectins isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia pulcherrima showed in vivo antitumour activity against EAC or S-180 in mice, and the ethanol extract of the flowers is reported to have molluscicidal activity.
Hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidaemic activities of the aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of Caesalpinia bonduc seeds were studied in normal and streptozotocin-diabetic rats. In normal rats, both extracts exhibited hypoglycaemic activity as early as 4 hours after administration of a dose of 100 mg/kg. The hypoglycaemia produced by the aqueous extract was of prolonged duration when compared to the hydro-ethanolic extract. In diabetic rats, both extracts produced a significant antihyperglycaemic effect from day 5 onwards. The aqueous extract also exhibited antihypercholesterolemic and antihypertriglyceridemic effects in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. An isoflavonoid bonducellin and several diterpenes, including bonducellpin, bonducin, caesaldekarin, caesalpin, caesalpinin, were isolated.
Seed of Caesalpinia coriaria yield 9.1% of a fixed oil, containing 4.9% cyclopropenoid fatty acids, which have known co-carcinogenic properties. Oven-dried fruits of Caesalpinia coriaria at 2500 ppm were 100% effective in controlling the snails Lymnaea luteola and Gyraulus convexiusculus within 24—72 h. Methanolic herbal extracts showed algicidal activity when tested in ponds: precipitation of algal proteins due to hydrolysable and condensed tannins may be involved.
A 50 mg/kg dose of Caesalpinia crista seed powder, its equivalent of a methanolic extract, or piperazine (200 mg/kg) were found equally effective in treating ascarid infection in poultry. The crudes eed powder appears to be more potent and safer than its methanol extract on the basis of the side effects observed. A single oral dose of powdered Caesalpinia crista seeds (4 g/kg body weight) reduced faecal egg counts in buffalo calves naturally infected with Neoascaris vitulorum by 91% after 10 days and 100% after 15 days, without adverse effects.
The sterol mixture from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan (campesterol 11.2%, stigmasterol 18.9% and 'BETA'-sitosterol 69.9%), and some further isolated compounds (e.g. brazilin, brazilein and protosappanin E) showed a strong anticomplementary activity in vitro. Of the latter, the pharmacological effects of the phenolic compound (catechol derivative) brazilin ((6aS-cis)-7,11b-dihydobenz[b]indeno[1,2-d]pyran-3,6a,9,10(6H)-tetrol) were studied in more detail.
Based on the fact that immunomodulation during the initial stage of autoimmune diseases is an effective wau of preventing or controling these diseases, the effects of brazilin on the altered immune functions in the early phase of halothane intoxication of C57BL/6 mice were investigated. Treatment of halothane-caused hepatitis by an autoimmune-mediated process, and significantly increased the delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH)response, and mitogen (ConA, LPS)induced proliferation of splenocytes, while suppressor cell activity and mixed lymphocyte reaction were decreased, and IgM plaque forming cell titers (PFCs) were not significantly changed. Upon treatment with brazilin, all these parameters tested were changed to normal, although brazilin also significantly increased IgM PFCs to a higher than normal level. At the cellular level (e.g. T cells), brazilin decreased splenic cellularity and IL-2 production which had been augmented in mice treated with halothane for 4 consecutive days, whereas the reduced expression of IL-2 receptors by ConA or standard IL-2 was increased by this compound.
Brazilin was found to have a hypoglycaemic action and increase glucose metabolism in experimental diabetic animals. In order to investigate the mechanism of the hypoglycaemic action, its effects on glucose transport, insulin receptor autophosphorylation, and protein kinase C(PKC) activity in 3T3-L1 cells were studied. Brazilin increased basal glucose transport in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes, although insulin-stimulated glucose transport was not influenced. Autophosphorylation of the partially purified insulin receptor was not affected by brazilin treatment in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts, but the compound decreased PKC activity in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes. The hypothesis that brazilin might require Ca2+ for its glucose transport-stimulating action was also investigated by the use of calcium modulators such as nifedipine, verampamil and A23187. From these experiments it was suggested that calmodulin and the maintenance of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration, rather than an increase in it, may be essential for the stimulatory action of brazilin on glucose transport.
Other pharmacological effects of extracts of Caesalpinia sappan include antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus 209P, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Shigella dysenteriae and Bacillus subtilis of a decoction of the wood. A Caesalpinia sappan extract was found to be a potent agent for inactivating human sperm in vitro. Exposure of sperm from healthy donors to this agent showed remarkably reduced sperm motility. The antimotility effect of Caesalpinia sappan is concentration-dependent and about 2.5 mg/ml is required to reduce motility to 50% of that of the control medium (EC50).
The ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Caesalpinia decapetala administered orally on days 1—8 post-coitum at 500 mg/kg dose exhibited significant contraceptive activity in female hamsters, but was devoid of any oestrogenic activity. On fractionation, the activity was found to be localized in the butanol and aqueous fractions. Caesaljapin, a cassane triterpenoid isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia decapetala showed inhibitory activity against the anaphylactic contraction in taenia coli of guinea-pigs sensitized by anti-egg albumin rabbit IgE.
Water extracts of Caesalpinia digyna leaves demonstrated antifungal activity against Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton simii, Trichosporon beigelii, Microsporum fulvum and Microsporum gypseum.
Several cassane-type furanoditerpenes, called caesaldekarins have been isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia major; caesaldekarin A inhibited mitogen responses of mouse spleen cells and interleukin-1 production. Pulcherrimins A and B (diterpene dibenzoates), as well as cassane-type furanoditerpenes, isolated from the roots of Caesalpinia pulcherrima, were active against the DNA repair-deficient mutant of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Lectins isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia pulcherrima showed in vivo antitumour activity against EAC or S-180 in mice, and the ethanol extract of the flowers is reported to have molluscicidal activity.
Description
Small to medium-sized trees, shrubs, lianas or scramblers, usually armed with spines or prickles. Leaves alternate, usually paripinnate, rachis often prickly, leaflets opposite or alternate, sessile or petiolate. Inflorescence an axillary, supra-axillary or terminal panicle or raceme. Flowers unisexual or bisexual, 5-merous; sepals free, imbricate, usually unequal, the lowest one hood-shaped; petals free, unequal, the upper one different in shape and size; stamens 10, free, equal or alternately unequal, filaments hairy at base; pistil sessile or shortly stalked; ovary pubescent or glabrous, 1—10-ovulate, style slender, stigma funnel-shaped or bilobed. Fruit a pod, dehiscent or indehiscent, thin or thick, winged or wingless, sometimes spiny or twisted or furrowed. Seed orbicular, ellipsoid or reniform. Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons rounded, thick.
Growth and Development
Caesalpinia species flower and fruit throughout the year. Peak flowering may occur in the rainy season. Flowers and fruits can be present simultaneously. Growth performance varies greatly in Caesalpinia. Caesalpinia sappan may start producing flowers after 1 year, whereas Caesalpinia coriaria only starts flowering 5—7 years after sowing.
Other Botanical Information
Caesalpinia bonduc, Caesalpinia crista and Caesalpinia major, mentioned in the literature are often misapplied names, partly for their close resemblance and for nomenclature reasons. Whereas Caesalpinia bonduc and Caesalpinia major are sometimes difficult to tell apart, Caesalpinia crista is very different.
Ecology
Caesalpinia is mostly found in scrub vegetation, sometimes in coastal habitats and rarely in primary forest. Most species prefer a seasonally dry climate, but some are also found in per-humid conditions. They are found on a wide range of soils from sea-level up to 1700(—2000) m altitude. Seeds of Caesalpinia bonduc can float and retain their viability in water for extended periods.
Propagation and planting
Caesalpinia species are usually propagated by seed. Mechanical scarification or sulphuric acid treatment is necessary to overcome the seed coat imposed dormancy of the often very hard seeds of Caesalpinia, e.g. Caesalpinia decapetala and Caesalpinia digyna. Fresh seed of Caesalpinia pulcherrima germinates readily in 2 weeks, without pretreatment. Caesalpinia pulcherrima is also propagated by in vitro techniques. Shoot formation of nodal explants from trunk sprouts is most successful in Murashige and Skoog (MS) media containing naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and cytokinin, whereas root formation is most prolific in MS media containing indole acetic acid (IAA) and cytokinin.
Husbandry
Caesalpinia used for its wood is usually managed as coppice. The climbing, thorny Caesalpinia species in particular are often cultivated in hedges.
Diseases and Pests
No serious diseases or pests are recorded. Some fungi are known to attack Caesalpinia coriaria: Fomes lucidus, Micropeltis domingensis and Zignoella caesalpinia. Auricularia auricula-judae and Meliola caesalpinia have been observed in Caesalpinia sappan.
Harvesting
Caesalpinia sappan managed as coppice is usually harvested every 6—8 years, whereby a stump of 1 m height is maintained. Mature pods of other Caesalpinia can be collected from the plant or picked up after they have dropped from the tree.
Handling After Harvest
Wood of Caesalpinia is cut in pieces of about 6 cm length and split to facilitate drying. Seeds are simply dried and stored for later use.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
Most of the medicinally important Caesalpinia species have large areas of distribution and are often found in disturbed habitats. In addition, several species are commonly cultivated for their ornamental value, so the risk of genetic erosion appears rather limited. Germplasm collections and breeding programmes are not known to exist.
Prospects
Several extracts of Caesalpinia show very interesting pharmacological effects, e.g. modulation cholinergic receptors, hypoglycaemic and antihyperglycaemic activity, complement inhibition and contraceptive and sperm motility reducing activity, which all merit further research. The effects of brazilin, isolated from the wood of Caesalpinia sappan, are quite well studied. More research is needed to fully evaluate its potential as a lead compound in future medicine.
Literature
Choi, S.Y., Yang, K.M., Jeon, S.D., Kim, J.H., Khil, L.Y., Chang, T.S. & Moon, C.K., 1997. Brazilin modulates immune function mainly by augmenting T cell activity in halothane administered mice. Planta Medica 63(5): 405—408.
Datte, J.Y., Traore, A., Offoumou, A.M. & Ziegler, A., 1998. Effects of leaf extract of Caesalpinia bonduc (Caesalpiniaceae) on the contractile activity of uterine smooth muscle of pregnant rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60(2): 149—155.
George, A.S., 1998. Caesalpinia. In: McCarthy, P.M. (Editor): Flora of Australia. Vol. 12. Mimosaceae (excl. Acacia), Caesalpiniaceae. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. pp. 59—66.
Oh, S.R., Kim, D.S., Lee, I.S., Jung, K.Y., Lee, J.J. & Lee, H.K., 1998. Anticomplementary activity of constituents from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan. Planta Medica 64(5): 456—458.
Sharma, S.R., Dwivedi, S.K. & Swarup, D., 1997. Hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidemic activities of Caesalpinia bonducella seeds in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 58(1): 39—44.
Shih, I.M., Chiang, H.S., Yang, L.L. & Wang, T.L., 1990. Antimotility effects of Chinese herbal medicines on human sperm. Journal of the Formosa Medical Association 89(6): 466—469.
Datte, J.Y., Traore, A., Offoumou, A.M. & Ziegler, A., 1998. Effects of leaf extract of Caesalpinia bonduc (Caesalpiniaceae) on the contractile activity of uterine smooth muscle of pregnant rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60(2): 149—155.
George, A.S., 1998. Caesalpinia. In: McCarthy, P.M. (Editor): Flora of Australia. Vol. 12. Mimosaceae (excl. Acacia), Caesalpiniaceae. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. pp. 59—66.
Oh, S.R., Kim, D.S., Lee, I.S., Jung, K.Y., Lee, J.J. & Lee, H.K., 1998. Anticomplementary activity of constituents from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan. Planta Medica 64(5): 456—458.
Sharma, S.R., Dwivedi, S.K. & Swarup, D., 1997. Hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidemic activities of Caesalpinia bonducella seeds in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 58(1): 39—44.
Shih, I.M., Chiang, H.S., Yang, L.L. & Wang, T.L., 1990. Antimotility effects of Chinese herbal medicines on human sperm. Journal of the Formosa Medical Association 89(6): 466—469.
Author(s)
B. Ibnu Utomo
Caesalpinia bonduc
Caesalpinia coriaria
Caesalpinia crista
Caesalpinia decapetala
Caesalpinia digyna
Caesalpinia major
Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Caesalpinia sappan
Caesalpinia sumatrana
Caesalpinia coriaria
Caesalpinia crista
Caesalpinia decapetala
Caesalpinia digyna
Caesalpinia major
Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Caesalpinia sappan
Caesalpinia sumatrana
Correct Citation of this Article
Utomo, B.I., 2001. Caesalpinia L.. In: van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea
Selection of Species
The following species in this genus are important in this commodity group and are treated separatedly in this database:
Caesalpinia bonduc
Caesalpinia coriaria
Caesalpinia crista
Caesalpinia decapetala
Caesalpinia digyna
Caesalpinia major
Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Caesalpinia sappan
Caesalpinia sumatrana
Caesalpinia bonduc
Caesalpinia coriaria
Caesalpinia crista
Caesalpinia decapetala
Caesalpinia digyna
Caesalpinia major
Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Caesalpinia sappan
Caesalpinia sumatrana
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